Oceanography.txt

• -ask a question
• -do background research
• -construct hypothesis
• -test with experiment
• -analyze results and draw conclusions
• -either report or construct another hypothesis

a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, logical inferences and tested hypothesis

never say going to happen

• C
• H
• O
• N
• P
• S

95%

zone of life on earth

global sum of all ecosystem

biotic/abiotic

components of a system

number of protons

average mass of atoms of an element, calcuated using the relative abundance of isotopes in a naturally occuring

atoms with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons

H and He

between 13-18 bya

nucleosynthesis

100-300 sec

Stars and hevier elements formed

stellar nucleosynthesis

up tempurature and pressure

combine He's

Emanuel Swedenborg

solar nebular disk

Explosion - lots of gas and particles

light on the outside/heavy and dense on inside

formation of protoplanets = mashed together

solar system - dense planets close and gas planets far out

4.6 bya

1000 x

mostly H and He

heavier elements pulled into center

H and He blown away by solar wind

hot and molten

8 planets

medium sized star

10¹¹

10⁹

away from the milky way

on the inside

on the outside

crust forms

mass per unit volume ex: g/cm³

• -crust
• -ocean
• -lithosphere
• -asthenosphere
• -mesosphere
• -outer core - liquid
• -inner core - soild

• -crust
• -ocean
• -mantle
• -core

partial melting resulted in outgasing

40 bya

similar to gases emitted by a volcanoe

• mainly water vapors
• CO₂ H
• other gases

• 1. outgasing - water vapor release, condensed as rain, accumulate, 4 bya, mostly from here
• 2. comets - ice

-70.8% covered by water

• -97% in seawater in oceans and seas
• -2% freshwater lakes and rivers
• -1% ice and snow
• .00057% atmospheric water

4.5 bya

meteor collision

ejection

condensation

70.8%

an atom or molecule where the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net overall negative or positive charge

• ionic
• covalent
• hydrogen

electrons gained or lost

electrons shared

intermolecular bond of H with an electronegative atom

positive

negative

105 degrees

covalent

negative and positive ends

hydrogen

covalent

makes beading

Hydrogen bonds

makes beads stay in place

H bonding causes

65%

83%

95%

99%

it can dissolved nearly everything

water molecules can fit around sodium

hydrated molecule

total amount of solid material dissolves in water (not including disolved organic substances) it is the ration of the mass of the disolved stubstances to the mass of the water sample

it does not include fine particles

parts per thousand

%

chlorine

principle of constant proportion

the major dissolved constituents responsible for the salinity of seawater occur nearly everywhere in the ocean in exact same proportions, regardless of saleinty

1.80655 x chlorinity

• liquid
• solid
• gas

add or remove heat

• -friction
• -burning
• -chemical reaction
• -radioactive decay

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram by 1 degree C

water vapor

ice

water

melting

• vaporization
• evaporation
• boiling

deposition

sublimation

condensation

freezing

• 212 F
• 100 C

• 32 F
• 0 C

• -459 F
• -273 C

the amount of heat required to raise the temp of a substance by 1 degree C

then the substance can absorb or lose large quantities of heat with only a small change in temp - water

quantity of heat gained or lost per unit of mass as a substance undergoes a change of state

on either side are evaporation lattitudes

precipitation lattitudes

the poles

homogenus, remove strong gardients - decreasing wind speeds

no

first formed

deepest

largest geographic feature

second largest

6.5 x larger than US

3rd largest

5.5x bigger than US

became official ocean in 2000

wind can blow

gigantic waves

smallest and most shallow

surrounded by land

shallow

smaller

30,000 ya

polynesian

probably for food in canoes

explored area larger than china and soviet union combined

• -reflection of islands in clouds
• -followed birds - eg. frigate and terns - dusk/dawn pattern
• -stars
• -swells
• -stick charts

build raft with tradtion sails

made it from Peru in 1947

made it in less time

redid experiment with modern equipment

• mediterranean explorers and traders
• hug coast
• made it around africa

1st to make map of ocea

• -greek explorer
• -325 bc
• -explored coast of England, Norway
• -discovered the Atlantic had tides and linked to moon

• -276-196 BC
• -librarian at the library of Alexandria - collected ship logs-center for knowledge for Nautical Science
• -figured out circumprerences of earth
• -use direction and angle of sun
• -his value 40,000 km - true 40,032 km

• -lots of exploration
• -ate mushrooms
• -farthest known extent of eurpopean exploration before columbus
• -erik the red - sailed west from iceland and discovered greenland
• -leif eriksson- son of erik the red - set out to find newfoundland and did named it vinland

• -1519-1521
• -5 ships and 288 sailors return with 1 ship and 18 sailors
• -Juan Sebastian del Cano - made it back Magellan didn't

• -Prince Henry - The Navigator - School for Mariners
• -Bartholomew Diaz - 1488 - Cape of Good Hope - tip of Africa

• endeavour
• resolution
• adventure

1768-1779

1st time for systematic exploration of ocean

• -extensive scientific investigations
• -arctic to antarctic
• -map Pacific Ocean
• -depth sounding - rope and weight
• -wind and currents
• -subsurface tempuratures
• -biological sampling
• -general geography of the pacific and atlantic

Beagle

origin of species - trained naturalsit

geographic expedition

1838-1842

• explored coast of Antarctica
• map of oregon territory
• throughly explored hawaii

Lt. Matthew Maury

• US Navy
• 1st oceanogrphy text book
• father of physical oceanography

charles wyville tomson

made 362 sample/observations at intervals as nearly uniform as possible

• depth
• sample bottom
• bottom tempurature recorded

life couldn't exist below a certain depth of the ocean

• dispelled
• 133 dredges - 4700 new species of animals

• william beebe and otis barton
• 1934
• 923 m

US Navy

• 2500 researchers
• 4400 dives

• learn about water column
• 1980's

recording data

• ocean height
• waves
• temperature
• Chl (a measure of plant productivity)

1596 - Abraham Ortelius

• glossapteris fern
• 1885

• 1912
• could be joined
• finally together in theory

200 mya

things are always happening to the coast

200 m

Edward Bolard

• mountains
• glaciers
• fossils

• ~300 mya deposits
• worldwide ice age or continents move
• same time period has coal deposits in North America

• plants, reptiles
• mesosaurus - before would have been magiced from south america to africa

• fit of continents
• matching mountains
• glaciers
• distribution of organisms

• continents "plow" through the ocean basins - claculations showed this to be incorrect
• continents moved because of gravitational attraction between sun and moon

density

~ 4km

>.4%

35-40 km

low

Al, Si, O

68.1%

~2900 km

• Dense, Hot rocks
• Mg, Fe, Si, O

31.5%

~3500 km

liquid

solid

• increase pressure = higher melting point
• 9900 without pressure to 22000 degrees F with pressure

• thick and light
• 2.7 g/cm³

• thin and dense
• 3.0 g/cm³

• Granite
• Texture: Course
• Color: Light

• Basalt
• Texture: Fine/Course
• Color: Dark

even denser rock

Moho

Andrija Mohorovicic

Ocean - because thinner

if weight added - displaces more water

the vertical movement of the crust

the buoyancy of the earth's lithosphere as it floats on the denser, plastic like asthenosphere below

• 1640-2300 ft below present
• level undercover of ice 1.2-1.9 miles thick

• Oceanic crust younger than continental crust
• midatlantic ridge conform to shoreline

mid-oceanic ridge

Harry Hess - US Navy Captain

1950s

during WW II left depth recorder on all the time and noticed

• 1. extensive mountain ridges in the center of ocean basin
• 2. extremely deep ocean trenches at the edge of the ocean basins
• 3. undersea volcanoes had flat peaks
• 4. less sediment at mountain ridges

by continents

by ridges - not quite as dense

eroded

by the contients

by ridges

geopoetry

• 1. New crust formed at ridges
• 2. Volcanoes that form are close to surface - eroded=flat top
• 3. Deep ocean trenches are where sea floor descends back into mantle
• 4. Mud and sediments deposited on the ocean floor thin toward the mid-ocean ridges

measured first magnetic anomalies in the Indian Ocean

Drumand mathews and Fred Vine

• Carl Friedrich Gaus
• 1800's

residual magnetic fields

formed from cooling magna that contains iron oxide

200,000 years on average

750,000 years ago

highly variable

• slowly diminishes
• declining pretty steadily
• take a really long time

sea mount

in residual magnetic fields

formed from the cooling magma that contains iron oxide

strips of magnetism were a historical record of new sea floor

• 1. ridge push
• 2. slab pull

boyant magma pushes up driving plates apart

old dense, heavy plate sinks pulling plates behind also called slab suction - conveyor belt movement

• mid-ocean ridges
• continental margins
• ocean floors and deep sea trenches

divide into 3 parts

the relatively shallow (up to 200 meters) seabed surrounding a continent

• lies at water depth
• ~2-3 km
• submarine canyons

broad underwater plain

• Abyssal Plains
• Abyssal Hills
• Seamounts
• guyots

A flat-topped submarine mountain

A broad, relatively flat region of the ocean that lies at least 4.5 km below sea level

Relatively small topographic features of a dominantly flat, deep-ocean floor, commonly 50-250 m in height and a few kilometers in width. They are most typical of the Pacific Ocean floor at depths of 3000-6000 m

Challenger Deep in the Marina Trench

11000 meters

Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard

10,915 m

• 9 hours
• 20 min

• Pacific
• African
• North American

Along plate lines

2-12 cm

• 1. Divergent
• 2. Convergent
• 3. Transform

boundries between plates moving apart

Mid-atlantic

sea floor spreading, new sea floor created

oceanic to oceanic crust

broader, less rugged

amount of energy released is related to spreading rate

Faster spread - less energy relased in each earthquake

iceland

continental rifting

regions where plates are pushing together

buckling and shortening

• 1. oceanic-continental
• 2. oceanic-oceanic
• 3. continental-continental

• Andes
• Subduction
• old sea floor destroyed

• Aleutian Islands - Island arc formation and trenchs
• subduction
• old sea floor destroyed

• The Himalayas
• Collision
• sea floor not created or destoryed

rub sideways

• San andreas Fault
• transform faulting
• sea floor not created or destoryed

• Continental-continental
• Oceanic-contiental
• oceanic-oceanic

• Hawaii
• don't know why
• certain areas in mantle get hot areas - can come all the way to surface

• ocean formed
• 1. continent rift
• 2. sea floor created
• 3. expand
• 4. subducting
• 5. sea smaller
• 6. collision

circular

the sun is the primary force of energy on earth

solar energy

• N
• O
• Ar
• CO₂
• All others

78%

21%

1%

• .039%
• +.5%/year
• 388ppm

• Fourier
• 1827

• flat- sun come in fairly easilya nd evenly
• round- different areas getting less sunlight, start to bend

23.5 degree

the fraction of incident electromagnetic radiation reflected by a surface

• absorb
• low abedo
• forest and ocean

• reflect
• high albedo
• ice caps and clouds

• pools of water absorb
• then melt more and absorb more
• melt and absorb

atmoshpereic and oceanic circulation

• warm air rises
• cold air falls

• cool air cannot hold much water vapor so typically dry
• warm air can hold more water vapor so typically moist

water vapor decreases the density of air

• a column of cool, dense air caused high pressure at the surface - sinking air
• a column of warm less dense air causes low pressure at the surface - rising air

at the equator - warm air

• Hadley Cell 0-30
• Ferrel Cell 30-60
• Polar Cell 60-90

wind patterns

doldurms

horse latitude

NE and SE trade winds

Westerlies

polar easterlies

• 1. differential heating of the tropics - amount of radiation over larger surface area at poles, radiation travels through more atmopshere at poles
• 2. Heat redistribution - atmosphere circulation (winds) - ocean curents
• 3. change in air density - pressure gradiant
• 4. Coriolis effect

E/W

N/S

the effect of the rotation of the earth on the direction of the wind

East to west

• 16000 km/hour
• 800 km/hour

• earth is rotating counterclockwishe
• shift to the right

• the earth is rotating clockwise
• shift to the left

Intertropical convergence Zone

• clouds collect here
• shifts depending on what time of year - summer up, winter down

day-to-day state of the atmosphere and is short term (min-weeks) variation

statistical weather information that describes the variation of weather at a given place for a specified interval (usually over 30 years), statistics of weather extreem

• cyclonic flow
• low pressure
• storm

• anti-cydonic flow
• high pressure
• dry

atlantic and e. pacific

w pacific

indian and austrialia

• Saffir-simpson
• 1-5

• warm water
• wind
• distance from the equator to get that spin

• 1. wind driven
• 2. density drive

• surface curents
• dwon to ~ 1 km
• 10 %
• moves water horizontally

• moves water vertically
• 90%
• responsible for mixing water masses

• basic current meters
• Satellites - TOPEX/Poseidon radar - ocean surface dynamic

friction between wind and water

2%

any large system of rotating ocean currents particurally those involved with large wind movements

• 1. North Atlantic
• 2. South Atlantic
• 3. Indian
• 4. North Pacific
• 5. South Pacific

• 1. equatorial
• 2. western boundary
• 3. northern or southern boundary
• 4. eastren boundary

• ex: kurcitio and gulf stream
• narrow <100 km
• deep - up to 2 km
• fast - hundreds of km/day
• moving warm water to pole

• Wide >1000 km
• shallow - .5 km
• slow - 10s of km/day
• move cool water to equator

• leads to ekman transport of water
• 90 degrees to the wind that forces motion
• drives upwelling

• termohailine circulation
• abyssal circulation

tempurature and salinity

• deep currents
• have ballast and sink
• bomb around in current - send back info to sattelite
• 3149 out right now

• Tritium
• CFC's
• Oxygen

salinity

tempurature and salineity

goes up

important in dynamics and bio heat transport

• virtical stratification
• heat transport
• it provides O to deep ocean
• stores anthropogenic carbon dioxide

100 m

inverses

strong thermocline stratived

vertically well mixed

slow

• evaporation - Temp drops, Salinity rises
• Ice formation - Salinity rises by brine injection

no deep water formation - salinity uniform

wally broecker

schmitz 1995

• haline forcing is affect by excess rain, runoff on ice melt
• -slowdown or shutdown conver belt

conver belt disruped

energy

wind driven

moving energy along ocean/air interface

• air/ocean interface
• air air interface
• splace waves
• seismic sea wave or tsunami
• wake

gravitational attraction among moon, sun, and earth

the height of the water without any waves

• H
• distance between crest and trough

bottom of the wave

top of the wave

• L
• from crest to crest

• T
• the time it takes for a full wavelength to pass a fixed position

• f
• 1/T

• energy
• not water mass

• waves transmit energy
• cyclic motion of particles in the ocean

• up and down
• back and forth
• around and around

• push pull
• slinky

• side to side
• string to doorknob - flick it

orbital waves

rubber duck bobbing up and down, but makes a full circle

• equal to 1/2 the wave length (at SWL) or L/2
• how deep orbital motion of wave felt

• wavelength
• longer the wave the deeper the wave base

• deepwater wave
• shallow wave
• transitional wave

• water depth is greater than the wave base
• >L/2

water depth is <L/20

the faster the shallow waves move

• charactersitics of booth deep and shallow water waves
• L/20 < depth < L/2

• wind speed
• duration
• fetch

how long wind blows in one direction

distance it blows in one dicrection

different size waves based on wind speed, duration, and fetch

• wave height/wave length
• H/L

• ration of H to L exceeds 1/7 - the wave breaks
• max wave height

antarctica

• speed
• duration
• fetch

• the rate at which the wave travels
• L/T

wave seeped used only in relation to waves where no mass is moved

• deep water waes
• shallow water waves
• transitional waves

moves at speeds controlled by wavelength

moves at speeds controlled by water depth

in between deep water waves and shallow water waves

• 0 - sea like a mirror
• up force - up wind
• 12 - hurricane

• constructive
• destructive
• mixed

• same pattern
• larger wave

• out of phase
• flat

• in and out of phase
• wierd

out of nowhere - not the right conditions

2 x as high

3x as high

4x as high

several billion

• constructive interference
• mixing current energy
• reationship with land

Don't really know

• walls of water
• 3 sisters
• single giant storm waves

• reliable messurement
• 34 m or 112 ft - 11 story building

• single giant
• New years day 1995 - confirmed exhistance of freak waves

• uniform symmetrical waves that travel outward from storm area
• long crests

longer wavelenght - outdistance other waves

group of waves with similar characteristics

sorting waves by their wavelengths

ground swell is in the deep ocean , idstant stor or earthquake, touch the ground, farther distance, larger

• down wave speed
• down wavelength
• up wave height
• up wave steepness
• wave break

• top of the wave crashes over on itself
• wave form not sustained
• breakers associated with slope of sea floor

• water slides down front of slope wave
• gently sloping sea floor

• curling crest
• moderately sloping sea floor
• wave energy expended over shorter distance
• best for board surfers

• breakers on shore
• steepest sea floor
• energy spread over shortest distance
• best for body surfing

• longer duration and fetch
• steeper slopes
• wind blows toward the shore

• release of energy
• earthquake, landslide, volcanic erruption
• long wave length - shallow water wave
• speed proportional to water depth - very fast in open ocean
• sea level can rise up to 40 m
• most occur in Pacific ocean