-
1401. century in which geologists favored the theory that the Earth had been cooling and contracting for centuries
19th (USQRG:74,1,1)
-
1402. main evidence for the theory that the Earth had been cooling and contracting for centuries
mountain ranges full of folded rocks (USQRG:74,1,1)
-
1403. three phenomena unaccounted for by the theory of the contraction of the Earth’s crust
continental shape, continental positioning, and great rift valleys (USQRG:74,1,1)
-
1404. process that created great rift valleys
stretching of the Earth’s crust (USQRG:74,1,1)
-
1405. process that heats Earth’s interior
decay of radioactive elements (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1406. When did geologists discover how the Earth’s interior is heated?
beginning of the 20th century (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1407. theory about changes in the Earth’s crust supported by the explanation of the process of heating the Earth’s interior
expansion (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1408. eventual result of initial cracks in the continents, according to the theory of crust expansion
formation of oceans (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1409. two continents whose coastlines’ formation are explained by the theory of crust expansion
South America and Africa (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1410. What flaw does the theory of crust expansion have?
does not account for folded mountain ranges (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1411. process by which folded mountain ranges formed
compression (USQRG:74,1,2)
-
1412. plate
huge slabs of Earth’s crust that carry the continents (USQRG:74,2,1)
-
1413. decade that plate tectonics caused a revolution in geology
the 1960s (USQRG:74,1,1; USQRG:74,2,1)
-
1414. first coherent, unified explanation for all of Earth’s features
plate tectonics (USQRG:74,2,1)
-
1415. result of two plates converging
formation of a compressional feature (USQRG:74,2,1)
-
1416. result of two plates diverging
formation of an expansional feature (USQRG:74,2,1)
-
1417. first scientist to propose the theory of continental drift
Alfred Wegener (USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1418. year in which continental drift was first proposed
1910 (USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1419. Alfred Wegener’s occupation
meteorologist (USQRG:74,2,1; USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1420. Alfred Wegener’s nationality
German (USQRG:74,2,1; USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1421. continental drift
theory that continents move slowly over time (USQRG:74,2,2; USQRG:101,1,16)
-
1422. Pangaea
ancient supercontinent comprised of all continental crust present at the time (USQRG:74,2,2; USQRG:102,2,15)
-
1423. meaning of Pangaea
“all lands” (USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1424. metaphor Alfred Wegener used to describe the floatation of continental fragments following the breakup of Pangaea
pieces of ice floating on a pond (USQRG:74,2,2)
-
1425. root language of the word Pangaea
Greek (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1426. forerunner theory to plate tectonics
continental drift (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1427. latest geological period in which Pangaea existed
Permian (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1428. two main continents in the Triassic period
Laurasia and Gondwanaland (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1429. geological period of 150 million years ago
Jurassic (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1430. geological period of 200 million years ago
Triassic (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1431. geological period of 65 million years ago
Cretaceous (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1432. geological period of 225 million years ago
Permian (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1433. two modern‐day continents bordered by the Tethys Sea during the Triassic period
Asia and Africa (USQRG:75,fig)
-
1434. geologist subgroup that was most resistant to the theory of continental drift
geophysicists (USQRG:74,2,3)
-
1435. Why did contemporary geologists have trouble accepting Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift?
could not envision how the continents could move around (USQRG:76,1,0)
-
1436. two continents with matching Atlantic coastlines
Africa and South America (USQRG:76,1,1)
-
1437. two continents with matching Pacific coastlines
Australia and Antarctica (USQRG:76,1,1)
-
1438. shoreline
edge of land (USQRG:76,1,2)
-
1439. two continents with the most noncliffed Atlantic shorelines
North America and Africa (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1440. continental shelf
gently sloping land extending from noncliffed shorelines (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1441. another name for continental shelf
continental platform (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1442. feature at the end of a continental shelf
sharp drop‐off (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1443. zone butting up against the continental shelf
continental slope (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1444. continental slope
steeply sloped zone between the continental shelf and the ocean depths (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1445. slope of the land on the continental slope
steep (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1446. slope of the land at the end of the continental slope
level (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1447. continental rise
relatively level land at the end of the continental slope (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1448. zone that marks the transition to the ocean floor from the continental slope
continental rise (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1449. abyssal plain
relatively flat ocean floor (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1450. most common mineral in continental crust
granite (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1451. most common mineral in oceanic crust
basalt (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1452. event that occurs at junctions between continental and oceanic crusts
sediment covering (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1453. three features determining the configuration of a shoreline
sea level, presence of cliffs, and topography of the continental shelf (USQRG:76,2,0)
-
1454. true edge of a continent
junction between the continental and oceanic crust (USQRG:76,fig)
-
1455. commonly defined edge of a continent
halfway down the continental slope (USQRG:76,fig)
-
1456. borders that should be considered in fitting continents together
true edges of continents (USQRG:77,1,0)
-
1457. How are maps fitting continents together drawn today?
with computers specifically programmed for this purpose (USQRG:77,1,0)
-
1458. average gap or overlap between South America and Africa if fit together in the “best fit” position
56 miles (USQRG:77,1,0)
-
1459. portion of South America with the largest continental slope
southeastern (USQRG:77,fig)
-
1460. bedrock composition of the areas of South America and Africa with the most overlap if fit together in the “best fit” position
sedimentary or volcanic rocks (USQRG:77,1,0)
-
1461. time period in which the areas of South America and Africa with the most overlap in the “best fit” position formed
after the continents separated (USQRG:77,1,0)
-
1462. discovery to be expected if South America and Africa were once connected, according to Murck and Skinner
similar geologic features on both continents (USQRG:77,1,1)
-
1463. most compelling evidence supporting the theory of continental drift, according to Murck and Skinner
similar geologic features on separate continents (USQRG:77,1,1)
-
1464. Why could Alfred Wegener not accurately determine the age of a rock?
Radiometric dating was just being developed. (USQRG:77,2,1)
-
1465. starting point for determining if two separate continents have similar geologic features, according to Murck and Skinner
checking if ages and orientations of similar rock types match (USQRG:77,2,1)
-
1466. location of South American rocks that match African rocks particularly well
northeast Brazil (USQRG:77,2,1)
-
1467. location of African rocks that match South American rocks particularly well
West Africa (USQRG:77,2,1)
-
1468. age of rocks in South America and Africa that have similar properties
550 million years (USQRG:77,2,1)
-
1469. four regions or states that house the Caledonides
Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia (USQRG:77,2,2)
-
1470. mountain range that once connected with the Caledonides
Appalachians (USQRG:77,2,2)
-
1471. two continents with mountain ranges that were once joined to a younger part of the Appalachians
Africa and Europe (USQRG:77,2,2)
-
1472. three regions or states with similar deposits left by recent glaciations
Canada, Scandinavia, and the northern United States (USQRG:77,2,3)
-
1473. epoch in which the most recent glaciations in the northern United States occurred
Pleistocene (USQRG:77,2,3)
-
1474. age in which glacial deposits in Africa and South America with similar properties were formed
Permian‐Carboniferous (USQRG:77,2,3)
-
1475. expected discovery about similar glacial deposits in Africa and South America if the two continents were moved together
an almost exact match (USQRG:77,2,3)
-
1476. effect of the movement of glacial ice on underlying rocks
cuts grooves and scratches (USQRG:77,2,4)
-
1477. effect of the movement of glacial ice on underlying soft sediment
produces folds and wrinkles (USQRG:77,2,4)
-
1478. direction of ice movement in South America and Africa
outward from the center of the former ice sheet (USQRG:77,2,4)
-
1479. climate of South America and Africa in the period that they were conjoined relative to today
much colder (USQRG:77,2,4)
-
1480. position of South America and Africa in relation to the equator in the period that they were conjoined, relative to today
farther away (USQRG:77,2,4)
-
1481. part of Africa next to India during the Carboniferous age
eastern (USQRG:78,fig)
-
1482. four continents that overlapped with Antarctica during the Carboniferous age
South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia (USQRG:78,fig)
-
1483. center of glacial movement in the southern hemisphere during the period in which Pangaea existed
the then South Pole (USQRG:78,fig)
-
1484. conclusion reached if South America and Africa once shared the same climate and geological features
had the same plants and animals (USQRG:78,1,1)
-
1485. evidence Wegener used to verify that South America and Africa had similar forms of life in the past
the fossil record (USQRG:78,1,1)
-
1486. point at which forms of life in South America and Africa began to evolve separately
the separation of the continents (USQRG:78,2,0)
-
1487. Glossopteris
ancient fern (USQRG:78,2,1)
-
1488. five locations the Glossopteris has been found
southern Africa, South America, Australia, India, and Antarctica (USQRG:78,2,1)
-
1489. probability that water and wind carried seeds of Glossopteris to different locations
unlikely (USQRG:78,2,1)
-
1490. relative size of Glossopteris seeds
large (USQRG:79,1,0)
-
1491. relative weight of Glossopteris seeds
heavy (USQRG:79,1,0)
-
1492. type of climate conducive to Glossopteris
cold (USQRG:79,1,0)
-
1493. climate of the southern part of Pangaea
polar (USQRG:79,1,0)
-
1494. Mesosaurus
extinct small reptile (USQRG:79,1,1)
-
1495. geological period in which the Mesosaurus lived
Permian (USQRG:79,1,1)
-
1496. two locations in which Mesosaurus fossils have been found
southern Brazil and South Africa (USQRG:79,1,1)
-
1497. similarity of Mesosaurus fossils found on different continents
“very similar” (USQRG:79,1,1)
-
1498. size of Mesosaurus
approximately half a meter (USQRG:79,2,0)
-
1499. How proficient was the Mesosaurus at swimming?
able to swim but not across the ocean (USQRG:79,2,0)
-
1500. organisms incapable of migration with similar fossils in widely separated areas
earthworms (USQRG:79,2,0)
-
1501. year of Alfred Wegener’s death
1930 (USQRG:80,1,0)
-
1502. decade in which paleomagnetism became prominent
the 1950s (USQRG:80,1,0)
-
1503. paleomagnetism
study of remnant magnetism or the historical record of the Earth’s magnetic field (USQRG:80,1,0; USQRG:102,2,14)
-
1504. polarity
north‐south directionality (USQRG:80,1,1)
-
1505. point at which magma becomes magnetized
solidification into rock (USQRG:80,1,1)
-
1506. direction in which a free‐swinging magnet points
north (USQRG:80,1,1)
-
1507. direction in which a rock’s paleomagnetism points
the Earth’s magnetic north pole at the time of formation (USQRG:80,1,1)
-
1508. magnetic inclination
angle of a magnet when pointing to the north pole (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1509. relative magnetic inclination at the equator
flat (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1510. relationship between magnetic inclination and latitude
the greater the latitude, the steeper the angle (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1511. location at which the magnetic inclination becomes horizontal
the magnetic pole (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1512. greatest possible angle of inclination
90° (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1513. measure that can be used to determine distance from a magnetic pole
magnetic inclination (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1514. paleomagnetic inclination
magnetic inclination inherent in rocks (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1515. feature that allows geologists to determine the original geographic latitude of rocks
paleomagnetic inclination (USQRG:80,2,0)
-
1516. layer of volcanic rocks that always has the present polarity
the top layer (USQRG:80,fig)
-
1517. decade in which geophysicists discovered the Earth’s magnetic north pole had shifted over time
the 1950s (USQRG:81,1,1)
-
1518. apparent polar wandering
the shifting of the Earth’s magnetic north pole throughout history (USQRG:81,1,1)
-
1519. correlation between two properties of Earth that led to confusion over apparent polar wandering
similarity between Earth’s magnetic poles and its axis of rotation (USQRG:81,1,1)
-
1520. two continents with early, differing evidence of the path of apparent polar wandering
North America and Europe (USQRG:81,1,1)
-
1521. eventual conclusion about apparent polar wandering
The continents carrying magnetic rocks shifted throughout time. (USQRG:81,1,1)
-
1522. feature from which the apparent polar wandering path of a continent is determined
the paleomagnetism of rocks of different ages (USQRG:81,2,0)
-
1523. number of years ago the apparent polar wandering paths of Europe and North America separated
600 million (USQRG:81,2,1)
-
1524. number of years ago the apparent polar wandering paths of Europe and North America reunited
50 million (USQRG:81,2,1)
-
1525. two conditions for the apparent polar wandering paths of Europe and North America to coincide together exactly
removal of the Atlantic Ocean and reassembly into a single continent (USQRG:81,2,1)
-
1526. mechanism that scientists held to in order to explain continental drift, even after the acceptance of paleomagnetism
one that could split the crust open (USQRG:81,2,2)
-
1527. ocean in which scientists first discovered a sea floor of rocks with bands of alternating polarities
Atlantic (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1528. equipment scientists used to discover a sea floor of rocks with bands of alternating polarities
magnetometer (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1529. length of bands of alternating polarities in magnetized rocks covering the sea floor
hundreds of kilometers (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1530. point of symmetry of the bands of alternating polarities in magnetized rocks covering the Atlantic sea floor
centerline of the Atlantic (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1531. geological feature running down the center of the Atlantic Ocean
crest of a ridge (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1532. explanation for the polarity of rocks on the Atlantic sea floor
The sea floor split apart along the ridge, with the rocks moving apart. (USQRG:81,2,3)
-
1533. origin of the molten material that rises to the Atlantic sea floor
the mantle (USQRG:81,2,4)
-
1534. How are new volcanic rocks formed on the Atlantic sea floor?
Molten material wells up the crack in the ocean’s ridge, solidifying into volcanic rocks. (USQRG:81,2,4)
-
1535. function of the spreading sea floor in the Atlantic Ocean
conveyor belt (USQRG:82,1,0)
-
1536. seafloor spreading
the creation of ocean floor at divergent plate boundaries (USQRG:82,1,0; USQRG:103,1,6)
-
1537. number of years ago the most recent band of normal polarity in Atlantic sea floor rocks began forming
700,000 (USQRG:82,fig)
-
1538. number of years ago the second most recent band of normal polarity in Atlantic sea floor rocks began forming
1.35 million (USQRG:82,fig)
-
1539. number of years ago the second most recent band of reversed polarity in Atlantic sea floor rocks began forming
1.65 million (USQRG:82,fig)
-
1540. number of years ago the third most recent band of reversed polarity in Atlantic sea floor rocks began forming
2.5 million (USQRG:82,fig)
-
1541. number of fully formed polarized bands in Atlantic sea floor rocks over the past two million years
4 (USQRG:82,fig)
-
1542. group of scientists that provided the final piece of evidence to support continental drift
geophysicists (USQRG:83,1,0)
-
1543. lithosphere
outermost part of the Earth (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1544. two zones of the Earth included in the lithosphere
the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1545. thickness of the lithosphere compared to the rock below it
thin (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1546. warmth of the lithosphere compared to the rock below it
cool (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1547. strength of the lithosphere compared to the rock below it
strong (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1548. composition of the part of the mantle not in the lithosphere
solid rock (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1549. Why is the part of the mantle not in the lithosphere malleable?
its high temperature (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1550. asthenosphere
zone in the upper mantle directly underneath the lithosphere (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1551. strength of the asthenosphere
particularly weak (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1552. approximate temperature of the asthenosphere
close to the temperature at which rock begins to melt (USQRG:83,1,2)
-
1553. plates
fragments of Earth’s lithosphere (USQRG:83,1,3)
-
1554. number of large plates in Earth’s lithosphere
6 (USQRG:83,1,3)
-
1555. reach of the large plates of Earth’s lithosphere
several thousand kilometers (USQRG:83,1,3)
-
1556. isostasy
equilibrium in which the plates “float” on the asthenosphere (USQRG:83,1,3; USQRG:102,1,10)
-
1557. type of movement that occurs in the mantle
thermal (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1558. tectonics
study of the movement and deformation of the lithosphere (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1559. root word of tectonics
tekton (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1560. meaning of tekton
carpenter or builder (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1561. language of tekton
Greek (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1562. plate tectonics
branch of tectonics dealing with processes of lithospheric plate movement and interaction (USQRG:83,1,4)
-
1563. location of most lithospheric plate interactions
along the edges (USQRG:83,2,1)
-
1564. most important aspect of lithospheric plate interactions, according to Murck and Skinner
the nature of plate margins (USQRG:83,2,1)
-
1565. three ways in which plates can interact
diverge, converge, and form a transform fault (USQRG:83,2,1)
-
1566. transform fault
large fracture at which plates slide past each other (USQRG:83,2,1)
-
1567. two alternate names for divergent margins
rifting and spreading centers (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1568. divergent margins
fractures in the lithosphere where two plates move apart (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1569. type(s) of crust in which divergent margins can occur
continental and oceanic (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1570. rift valley
result of a continental crust splitting apart (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1571. Why have rift valleys appeared in East Africa?
The African plate is being torn and stretched apart. (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1572. modern‐day example of ocean formation in a widening continental rift
the Red Sea (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1573. two results of an oceanic crust splitting apart
formation of mid‐oceanic ridge and seafloor spreading (USQRG:83,2,2)
-
1574. convergent margins
areas where two plates move toward each other (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1575. three types of convergent margins
ocean‐ocean, ocean‐continent, and continent‐continent (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1576. subduction zone
area in which oceanic crust sinks below another plate into the mantle (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1577. two geological features that mark subduction zones
deep oceanic trenches and volcano ranges (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1578. type of subduction zone found in Indonesia
ocean‐ocean (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1579. type of subduction zone found in the Andes
ocean‐continent (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1580. type of subduction zone found in the Himalayas
continent‐continent (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1581. collision zone
area in which mountain ranges are formed after two continents meet along a convergent margin (USQRG:83,2,3)
-
1582. transform fault margins
fractures in the lithosphere where two plates slide past each other (USQRG:83,2,4)
-
1583. effect on plates’ edges in transform fault margins
grinding and abrading (USQRG:83,2,4)
-
1584. state in which the San Andreas fault is located
California (USQRG:83,2,4)
-
1585. two plates involved in the San Andreas fault
Pacific Plate and the North American Plate (USQRG:83,2,4)
-
1586. plate movement within the San Andreas fault
north‐northwest movement of the Pacific Plate (USQRG:83,2,4)
-
1587. process that adds new material to the crust
volcanism along divergent margins (USQRG:83,2,5)
-
1588. process that removes material from the crust
subduction along convergent margins (USQRG:83,2,5)
-
1589. relative amounts of new material added to and removed from the crust by the tectonic cycle
equivalent (USQRG:83,2,5)
-
1590. amount of annual movement of most lithospheric plates
one to ten centimeters per year (USQRG:83,2,5)
-
1591. primary location of earthquakes and volcanoes
along plate margins (USQRG:84,1,1)
-
1592. most obvious manifestation of active plate interaction, according to Murck and Skinner
presence of earthquakes and volcanoes (USQRG:84,1,1)
-
1593. event geologists have found most helpful in deducing the shapes of the plates
earthquakes (USQRG:84,1,1)
-
1594. event that causes earthquakes
huge blocks of rock grinding past each other (USQRG:84,1,2)
-
1595. force exerting directional pressure that leads to earthquakes
tectonic motions (USQRG:84,1,2)
-
1596. fault
fracture in the crust along which movement has occurred (USQRG:84,2,0)
-
1597. Why do blocks of rock stick as they slide past one another?
friction (USQRG:84,2,0)
-
1598. focus
actual location beneath the Earth’s surface where an earthquake begins (USQRG:84,2,0)
-
1599. plural of focus
foci (USQRG:84,2,0)
-
1600. geological feature that sometimes marks a transform fault margin
long, linear valley (USQRG:84,fig)
-
1601. epicenter
map location of an earthquake (USQRG:85,1,0)
-
1602. geological location of an epicenter
directly above the focus (USQRG:85,1,0)
-
1603. strength of earthquakes that occur along divergent margins
fairly weak (USQRG:85,1,1)
-
1604. depth of the focus of earthquakes along divergent margins
shallow (USQRG:85,1,1)
-
1605. two rock properties needed for an earthquake to occur
cold and brittle enough to break (USQRG:85,1,1)
-
1606. center of the energy release in an earthquake
focus (USQRG:85,fig)
-
1607. depth of the focus of earthquakes at transform fault margins
shallow to intermediate (USQRG:85,2,0)
-
1608. type of earthquakes in collision zones that can be very powerful
deep‐focus (USQRG:85,2,0)
-
1609. portion of subduction zones that experiences powerful earthquakes
submerging oceanic plate (USQRG:85,2,1)
-
1610. depth of the focus of earthquakes occurring in a collision zone near an oceanic trench
shallow (USQRG:85,2,1)
-
1611. initial location of subduction
an oceanic trench (USQRG:85,2,1)
-
1612. relationship between depth of the focus of an earthquake in a collision zone and distance from the oceanic depth
the farther the distance, the deeper the focus (USQRG:85,2,1
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