-
archaeology
the study of our human past, combining the themes of time and change, using the material remains that have survived
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biological anthropology
the study of the biological nature of our nearest relatives and ourselves
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cultural (social) anthrolopology
the study of living peoples with a focus on the shared aspects of the human experience
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linguistics
the study of human languages
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anthropolgical archaeology
archaeological investigations that seek to answer the larger, fundamental questions about humans and human behavior taught in departments of anthropology
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prehistory
the time in the past before written history, often synonymous with archaeology
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historical archaeology
refers primarily to the archaeology of the civilizations of the recent industrail era, since 1700 or so
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classical arcaheology
a branch of archaeology primarily concerned with the literate Mediterranean civilizations of Greece and Rome
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cultural resource management (CRM)
Historical preservation in the United states involves survey and excavation to determine that historical and cultural resources are not being destroyed by development and construction
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pseudoscience
false or misleading claims about the nature of the world or the past, masquerading as science
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theory
a generally accepted explanation of observed events or relationships
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punctuated equilibrium
abrupt and sudden changes in the pace of evolution
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experimental archaeology
modern experiments to reporoduce artifacts, architecture, and/or techniques from the past
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research design
the overall strategy of intended methods, research area, and planned analysis for answering a question or questions about the past
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ethnoarchaeology
archaeological study of living societies for information to help better understand the past
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culture
a means of human adaptation based on intelligence, experience, learning, and the use of tools; the general set of behaviors and knowledge that humans use to survive and adapt
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archaeological culture
a group of related materials from a region that indicate a common or shared way of doing things
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demography
the study of human populations with a focus on size, age, and sex distribution, birth and death rates, and migration. Prehistoric demography is also known as paleodemography
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environment
a group of related materials from a region that indicate a common or shared way of doing things
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technology
the material, equipment, techniques, and knowledge that allow humans to convert natural resources into tools, food, clothing, shelter, and other products they need or want
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economy
the means and methods that society uses to obtain food, water, and resources for maintenance and growth
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organization
structure and interaction in human resources into tools, food, clothing, shelter, and other products they need or want
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ideology
the explanation of human, natural, and supernatural relationships through belief, ritual, and ceremony
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population
(1) All of the people living at a place or in a region. An archaeological population generally refers to the people related through membership in the same group
(2) All of the items or units of interest in statistical sampling
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burial population
the set of human remains found interred in a site or cemetery
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population density
the number of people per unit of area e.g., square kilometer
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home range
the geographic area an animal uses for feeding and other activities; in archaeology, the term generally refers to the area used by mobile hunter-gathers
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territory
a recognized and defended area utilized b a group of society, often associated with agricultural societies
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country
a sovereign, region, marked by boundaries and defended by military power, usually associated with state-level societies
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empire
large sovereign space, expanded by military conquest and encompassing several countries and/or territories, associated with state-level societies
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shaduf
a manual water hoist used for irrigation in ancient egypt
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saqia
an oxen-powered water wheel used for irrigation in ancient egypt
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invention
the creation or development of new ideas or techniques for solving problems
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diffusion
the spread of new ideas or materials from group to another
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migration
movement of new people into an area
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subsistence
the activities and materials that people use to obtain food
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hunter-gatherers
people who obtain their food from wild plants and animals, not domesticated species
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foragers
nonfarmers; groups who subsist by hunting, collecting, fishing, and the like without domesticated plants or animals
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exchange
transfer of material or information among individuals or groups
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recipocity
the exchange of items of roughly equal value
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redistribution
the movement of goods to a central place from which they are rationed or portioned out to members of society
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trade
economic transactions between individuals or groups involving bartering, buying, or selling
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division of labor
organization of tasks involving different groups doing different activities for the sake of efficieny
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cord-marking
a distinctive decoration on pottery produced by pressing a cord-wrapped stick into the soft clay of a pot before firing
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pithouse
a dwelling constructed over a hole in the ground, semisubterranean structure; a structure built on a semisubterranean foundation
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ethnogrpahy
the detailed investigation of a group of people, traditionally non-Western, through participant observation and descriptions of practices, activities, behaviors, and beliefs
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ethnohistory
branch of ethnography that combines sources from history, archaeology, and oral traditioons in the serch for answers about past people
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ethnographic analogy
comparison between ethnography and archaeology to explain similar things
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material culture
tangible, surviving evidence of human activities
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archaeological record
the body of information about the past that has survived to the present
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artifacts
the objects and materials that people have made and used
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sites
accumulations of artifacts and features, representing the places where people lived or carried out certain activities
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regions
large geographic areas, containing a number of archaeological sites that have been physically or conceptually modified
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scale
(1) different levels of discovery, analysis, and intpretation in archaeology
(2) the size of a map relative to the area it portrays
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atributes
detailed characteristics of archaeological materials and information
-
hominin
early human ancestor, fossil form
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context
place and association among the archaeological materials and the situation in which they occur
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primary context
the original position of an object in its place of discard or deposition; in place
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in situ
the original position of an object in its place of discard or deposition; in place; primary context
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provenience
the place of discovery or origin. Where an item is from
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ecofacts
unmodified, natural items found in archaeological contexts, often plant or animal material
-
flora
generic term for the archaeological remains of plants
-
fauna
generic term for the archaeological remains of animals
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features
the permanent facilities and structures that people construct in or on the earth
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midden
any substantial accumulation of garbage or waste at a locus of human activity; archaeological deposits of trash and/or shells that accumulate in heaps and mounds. A shell midden is a specific type of midden composed largely of mollusk shells
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inhumation
burial of all or part of a corpse; contrast with cremation
-
cremation
the incinerated remains of a human body
-
cenotaph
an empty grave, without a body
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activity area
location of specific tasks or behaviors within a site
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assemblage
a related set of different things
-
industry
one object or artifact type that appears in a number of assemblages
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component
an assemblage from a single layer, living floor, or occupation horizon; a set of materials in contemporary use by the same group of people
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multicomponent
a mixture of different episodes or periods of activity
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single component
the remains of a single episode of human activity
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occupation horizon
the layer or stratum that accumulates during an episode of human habitation and activity
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living floor
the actual places where people lived and carried out their activities
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tradition
the continuity of similar artifacts and design through time
-
horizon
layer or assemblage associated with geological strata or archaeological contents - usage includes a soil horizon, a cultural; the geographic extent of similar artifacts and design in space
-
phase
a particular period in time and space where an assemblage occurs
-
open-air sites
sites on land and uncovered, in contrast to sites in caves or rockshelters
-
rockshelter
a shallow cave or overhang, defined by having a width greater than its depth
-
surface sites
sites visible on the surface of the ground
-
nonsite (off site)
The areas between archaeological sites where there are occasional traces of human activitiy in the form of isolated artifacts, features, or other evidence
-
residential sites
places of habitation where people live and carry out the everyday activities that sustain life
-
camp
a short-term, temporary settlement, usually associated with hunter-gatherers or nomads
-
hamlet
a small village with just a handful of houses and a small number of inhabitants
-
village
a small residential unit of permanent houses with a population of less than a few hundred
-
town
larger than a village with internal differentiation in size and location of structures and usually containing one or more public buildings
-
city
an urban agglomeration with a population of 10,000 or more, internal differentiation, and distinct civic or ceremonial areas within its boundries
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extractive sites
nonresidential localities where some members of the society obtain food or other resources
-
shell midden
a specialized kind of extractive site, a mound made up o f large dumps of shell from mussels, oysters, or other species
-
rock art
decoration of rock surface by painting, pecking, or engraving
-
pictographs
rock art made by the application of pigment to rock surfaces
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petroglyphs
rock art made by removing the outer surface of a rock by carving or hammering
-
landscape
a humanly modified or perceived area
-
mound (aka barrows, tumuli)
a built pile or heap of earth or stones, resembling a very small hill, usually a burial monument
-
stela
a stone monument, carved and/or painted with designs and/or inscriptions, common in the Maya region
-
tell
an accumulated mound of occupation debris; man-made settlement mounds of earth and trash that accumulate from the decomposition of mud-brick, common in southwest asia and southeast europe
-
gravity model
a concept from geography whereby interaction among settlements is based on size, similar to interaction among planets based on gravity. Bigger communities have more interaction and influence on smaller communities
-
site formation
the processes involved in the creation of archaeological sites
-
systemic context
the actual use of artifacts and features in the past or present
-
archaeological context
the buried or surface context in which archaeological remains ar found; what survives to the present
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cultural transformation
modification of the archaeological record caused by human activity
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natural transformation
modification of the archaeological record by geological, hydrological, or chemical activity
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slopewash
gradual movement of sediments from higher to lower ground as a natural process of erosion and deposition
-
taphonomy
the study of what happens to a plat or animal between its death and the time it is found as a fossil or archaeological remain
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bioturbation
disturbance of the archaeological record from plant and animal activities such as root growth or animal digging
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living horizon
the actual surface of occupation at an archaeological site, sometime spreserved under unusual conditions of deposition
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fieldwork
collectively known as fieldwork, an important part of archaeological research involves survey for and excavation of archaeological materials, practices normally done outdoors (in the field)
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survey
(1) A systematic reconnaissance of the landscape for artifacts and sites on the ground through aerial photography, field walking, soil analysis, or geophysical prospecting
(2) mapping of sites and areas using surveying instruments such as a total station or GPS
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excavation
the exposure, recording, and recovery of buried materials from the past
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amateur archaeologist
in contrast to professional archaeologists, who are educated in the discipline, amateur or vocational archaeologists collect artifacts, study archaeology, and participate in professionally run excavations. Amateur archaeologoists are an important part of the field and have made substantial contributions to our knowledge of the past
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reconnaissance
the search for artifacts and sites by survey or field walking
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instrumental surveying
making maps and plans of places and areas of archaeological interest using survey instruments such as a total station or global positioning satellite systems
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playa
a dry lake bed common geomorphological feature in the wester US
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seasonal round
the pattern of subsistence and settlement found among hunter-gathers who change residence regularly during the course of a year
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ecological constraint
limitations on human activity imposed by the environment. For example aird conditions are an ecological constraint on agriculture
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study area
a generic term for the region of focus of a research project
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sample
a portion of a whole (n)
to take a part of a deposit, site, feature, or artifact for analysis (v)
The term sampling describes the process of taking a sample. This can be a one-time event, a series of actions, or a statistical process. Statistical sampling is a specific method for taking samples that allows probability estimates to be made about the population that is being sampled. Archaeologists almost always take samples, but only rarely is this done in a statistical fashion
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dual-residence
a subsistence and settlement pattern observed among some groups of hunter-gatherers who live in two places at different seasons during the course of a year
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field notes
the records of a field project of survey or excavation with description of activities, finds, records of samples, drawings, photographs, and the like. An important document of the research project
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datum
a point with known locational coordinates and elevation; a fixed point for surveying
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drawing grid
normally a 1-m2 frame of wood or aluminum fitted with a grid of string or wire at 20-cm intervals. It is used for drawing detailed plans of vertical sections or horizontal floors in archaeological excavations
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contour map
a schematic map of topography, the three-dimensional surface of the earth or other features. Contours are conventionally shown as a series of curved, concentric lines reflecting elevation or relief of a surface
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stadia rod
essentially, a very long ruler that is held vertically and read by an optical surveying instrument to determine distance above the ground
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scale
a ratio representing the size of an illustration, map, or reproduction in a publication
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alidade
an optical surveying instrument used for making contour maps
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total station
a modern surveying instrument using an infrared laser and computer to calculate distance and three-dimensional angles to determine the precise location of a target in terms of grid coordinates and elevation. Replaces levels, alidades, transits, and theolodites
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Geographic Information systems (GIS)
a computer program(s) for the storage, display, and analysis of geographic and spatial data. The basic concept involves the use of overlaid maps of an area in combination with locational information and spatial analytical capabilities
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Global Positional System (GPS)
A locational and navigational system for determining precise three-dimensional coordinates (longitude, latitude, and elevation) of any place on the earth's surface. Satellites broadcast locational information used by GPS equipment to determine the exact position. Replaces traditional, manual land-survey methods
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cursus monument
paired linear earthworks that mark an avenue or long, rectangular area in Neolithic Europe
-
auger (aka corer, borer)
a tool for drilling holes, used in archaeology for coring into soil and taking samples
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remote sensing
a variety of techniques used for obtaining information about surface or buried objects. Aboveground techniques normally involve aircraft or satellites using photography, radar, and other methods to locate and map features on or near the surface. Below ground techniques use radar, resistivity, magnetic properties, or chemistry to search for buried features
-
Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS)
a satellite instrument that records multiple wavelengths of light reflected from the earth's surface
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Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
An instrument that beams energy waves to the ground surface and records the reflected energy
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metal detectors
instruments that emit an electromagnetic field, which is disrupted by the presence of metal objects in the ground, used for finding buried metal objects
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magnetomerter (aka gradiometer)
Measures the earth's magnetic field at an archaeological site to locate buried walls and pits
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resistivity meter
used to measure electrical conductivity in soils, which may be due to the presence of buried disturbances such as fireplaces, burials, or other structures
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Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) (aka georadar)
an instrument that sends radar waves through the ground to reveal buried features
-
playa
a dry lake bed, common geomorphological feature in the western united states
-
seasonal round (aka annual cycle)
the pattern of subsistence and settlement found among hunter-gatherers who change residence regularly during the course of a year
-
ecological constraint
limitations on human activity imposed by the environment. For example, arid conditions are an ecological constraint on agriculture
-
study area
a generic term for the region of focus of a research project
-
sample
a portion of the whole (n)
to take a part of a deposit, site, feature, or artifact for analysis (v)
The term sampling describes the process of taking a sample. This can be a one-time event, a series of actions, or a statistical process. Statistical sampling is a specific method for taking samples that allows probability estimates to be made about the population that is being sampled. Archaeologists almost always take samples, but only rarely is this done in a statistical fashion
-
dual-residence
a subsistence and settlement pattern observed among some groups of hunter-gatherers who live in two places at different seasons during the course of a year
-
field notes
the records of a field project of survey or excavations with descriptions of activities, finds, records of samples, drawings, photographs, and the like. An important document of the research project
-
section (aka profile)
the walls of trenches and squares in excavations that show a cross section of the deposits and reveal the sequence and methods of formation
-
posthole
the hole or depression left when a post is removed from the ground, an indication of construction posts
-
inhumation
burial of all or part of a corpse; contrast with cremation
-
cremation
a funeral practice involving immolation of the corpse. Cremation burials usually consist of ash and a few fragments of bone and teeth and are often found in urns and small pits. Also, the incinerated remains of human body. Contrast with inhumation
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screening
sifting or sieving of sediments through fine screens to separate them from artifacts and ecofacts
-
flotation
an archaeological technique for recovering charred plant remains using water and density differences between heavy and light materials in sediments. Dry sediments are stirred into water, and the lighter plant remains float to the top
-
datum
a point with known locational coordinates and elevation; a fixed point for surveying
-
drawing grid (aka planning frame)
normally a 1-m2 frame of wood or aluminum fitted with a grid of string or wire at 20-cm intervals. It is used for drawing detailed plans of vertical sections or horizontal floors in archaeological excavations
-
contour map
a schematic map of topography, the three-dimensional surface of the earth or other features. Contours are conventionally shown as a series of curved, concentric lines reflecting elevation or relief of a surface
-
stadia rod
essentially, a very long ruler that is held vertically and read by an optical surveying instrument to determine distance above the ground
-
scale
a ratio representing the size of an illustration, map, or reproduction in a publication
-
alidade
an optical surveying instrument used for making contour maps
-
total station
a modern surveying instrument using an infrared laser and computer to calculate distance and three-dimensional angles to determine the precise location of a target tin terms of grid coordinates and elevation. Replaces levels, alidades, transits, and theolodites
-
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
a computer programs(s) for the storage, display, and analysis of geographic and spatial data. The basic concept involves the use of overlaid maps of an area in combination with locational information and spatial analytical capabilities
-
Global Positioning System (GPS)
a locational and navigational system for determining precise three-dimensional coordinates (longitude, latitude, and elevation) of any place on the earth's surface. Satellites broadcast locational information used by GPS equipment to determine the exact position. Replaces traditional manual land-survey methods
-
cursus monument
paired linear earthworks that mark an avenue oor long, rectangular area in Neolithic Europe
-
auger (aka corer, borer)
a tool for drilling holes, used in archaeology for coring into soil and taking samples.
-
remote sensing
a variety of techniques used for obtaining information about surface or buried objects. Aboveground techniques normally involve aircraft or satellites using photgraphy, radar, and other methods to locate and map features on or near the surface. Belowground techniques use radar, resistivity, magnetic properties, or chemistry to search for buried features
-
Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS)
a satellite instrument that records multiple wavelengths of light reflected from the earth's surface
-
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
an instrument that beams energy waves to the ground surface and records the reflected energy
-
metal dectors
instruments that emit an electromagnetic field, which is disrupted by the presence of metal objects in the ground, used for finding buried metal objects
-
magnetometer (aka gradiometer)
measures the earth's magnetic field at an archaeological site to locate buried walls and pits
-
resistivity meter
used to measure electrical conductivity in soils, which may be due to the presence of buried disturbances such as fireplaces, burials, or other structures
-
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) (aka georadar)
an instrument that sends radar waves through the ground to reveal buried features
-
geoarchaeology
archaeological research concerned with geology and the earth sciences
-
geomorphology
the branch of geology concerned with the study of the shape of the land; involves classification, description, origin, and change of land forms
-
uniformitarianism
geological principle that the processes of erosion and deposition observed in action today also operated in the past
-
levee
a raised bank created by repeated flooding
-
oxbow lake
a stranded river meander left as a lake in a floodplain
-
point bar
a low ridge of sand and gravel that forms underwater along the inner bank of a meandering stream
-
sediment
any particulate matter (clay, sand silt, mud, leaves, shell, and other materials) that can be transported by water. Opposite of rock
-
soil
surface sediments weather in situ
-
weathering
chemical and biological processes that break down and change the surface of the earth, altering its color, texture, or composition
-
horizon
layer or assemblage associated with geological strata or archaeological contents, e.g., usage incluudes a soil horizon, a cultural horizon; the geographic extent of similar artifacts and design in space
-
pedologist
soil scientists
-
techtonic
geological forces that move and deform the earth's crust
-
stratigraphy
a sequence of layers in the ground
-
superposition
principle that governs the interpretation of stratigraphy - in a sequence of the oldest layers are on the bottom and the youngest layers are on the top
-
midden
any substantial accumulation of garbage or waste at a locus of human activity; archaeological deposits of trash and/or shellls that accumulate in heaps and mounds. As shell midden is a specific type of midden composed largely of mollusk shells
-
cut
geomorphological term for erosion of sediments, also human digging
-
fill
geomorphological term for deposition of sediments, also human filling
-
sterile
containing no archaeological materials
-
plow zone
the upper part of soil layers that has been disturbed by plowing
-
plan view
a bird's-eye or top-down view of a site or region. A kind of map of the features and characteristics of a place. A standard representation of archaeological sites and areas
-
profile
a cross-section of archaeological or geological deposits showing the stratigraphy, sequence of layers, also, the cross-section of the walls of a ceramic vessel, a measure of shape
-
micromorphology
the study of anthropogenic sediments at a microscopic level
-
anthropogenic
created or produced by human activity, e.g. anthropogenic soils are a result of human activity
-
composition
the minceral and organic contents in the petrographic thing section
-
texture
the size and sorting of sediments, for example, in a petrographic thin section
-
fabric
the geometric relationship of the consituents in a petrographic thin section
-
Harris Matrix
a method for depicting intricate archaeological stratigraphy in a schematic way
-
interface
the term used in the Harris Matrix for surfaces at a site that were places of activity before they were buried - for example, the surface of a pit
-
petrographic microscope
a specialized version of a binocular microscope designed for the study of thin sections of rock or pottery
-
occupation horizon
the layer or stratum that accumulates during an episode of human habitation and activity
-
living floor
the actual places where people lived and carried out their activities
-
tradition
the continuity of similar artifcats and design through time
-
horizon
layer or assemblage associated with geological strata or archaeological contents - usage includes a soil horizon, a cultural horizon; the geographic extent of similar artifacts and design in space
-
phase
a particular period in time and space where an assemblage occurs
-
ope-air sites
sites on land and uncovered, in contrast to sites in caves or rockshelters
-
rockshelter
a shallow cave or overhang, defined by having a width greater than its depth
-
surface sites
sites visible on the surface of the ground
-
nonsite (off-site)
the areas between archaeological sites where there are occasional traces of human activity in the form of isolated artifacts, features, or other evidence
-
residential sites
places of habitation where people live and carry out the everyday activities that sustain life
-
camp
a short-term, temporary settlement, usually associated with hunter-gatherers or nomads
-
hamlet
a small village with just a handful of houses and a small number of inhabiants
-
village
a small residential unit of permanent houses iwht a population of less than a few hundred
-
town
larger with a village with internal differentiation in size and location of structure and usually containing one or more public buildings
-
city
an urban agglomeration with a population of 10,000 or more, internal differentiation, and distict civic or ceremonial areas within its boundaries
-
extractive sites
nonresidential localities where some members of the society obtain food or other resources
-
shell midden
a specialized kind of extractive site, a mound made up of large dumps of shell from mussels, oysters, or other species
-
rock art
decoration of rock surface by painting, pecking, or engraving
-
pictographs
rock art made by the applicaiton of pigment to rock surfaces
-
petrographs
rock art made by removing the outer surface of a rock by carving or hammering
-
landscape
a humanly modified or perceived area
-
mound (aka barrows, tumuli)
a built pile or heap of earth or stones, resembling a very small hill, usually a burial monument
-
stela
a stone monument, caved and/or painted with designs and/or inscriptions, common in the Maya region
-
tell
an accumulated mound of occupation debris; man-made settlement mounds of earth and trash that accumulate from the decomposition of mudbrick, common in Southwest Asia and Southeast Europe
-
gravity model
a concept from geography whereby interaction among settlements is based on size, similar to interaction among planets based on gravity. Bigger communities have made more interaction and influence on smaller communities
-
site formation
the processes involved in the creation of archaeological sites
-
systemic context
the actual use of artifacts and features in the past or present
-
archaeological context
the buried or surface context in which archaeological remains are found; what survives to the present
-
cultural transformation
modification of the archaeoloigcal record caused by human activity
-
natural transformation
modification of the archaeological record by geological, hydrological, or chemical activity.
-
slopewash
gradual movement of sediments from higher to lower ground as a natural process of erosion and deposition
-
taphonomy
the study of what happens to a plant or animal between its death and the time it is found as a fossil or archaeological remain
-
bioturbation
disturbance of the archaeological record from plant and animal activities such as root growth or animal digging
-
What makes up the archaeological record
the preservation and documentation of artifacts
ecofacts
features and their context at the archaeological site
-
ecofacts
organic remains modified by humans
-
allows us interpretation of
form
function
technology
-
ceramic form typological analysis
overall
slip
function
can infer when not complete
-
Ceramic functional analysis
residue
context
-
ceramic residue
chromotography
-
ceramic context
cooking, serving, storing, ritual
-
ceramic trade
trade connections
-
Ceramic technological anaylisis
source
manufacture techniques
temper added
firing temp
-
cube - die
can alos make inferences about what you can't see
-
new grange on the winter sostice
built around 3200 bc
above enterance there is an opening - light comes through
-
The scientific method - a way of thinking
- 1. define a relevent problem
- 2. establish 1 or more hypothesis - questions with a possible answer - a proposed statement as an explanation
- 3. Determine the empirical implications
- 4. collect appropriate data
- 5. test by comparing data
- 6. reject, revise and/or retest as necessary
-
archaology is collective
can't do it alone
-
scientific method in archaeology
bridging the gap between info we recover and the questions we seek to ask
It's an argument by ennumeration or an accumulation of evidence, rather than by experiements
-
chokia mound
natural or man made
-
moundbilder myths
did not think it was native americans
Squier and davis map and record - 1848 - "half civilized nation of Mexico
Did not text these mounds
1879 - Powell - test mounds
1894 - Thomas - Native Americans, but after Europeans arrived - survey and excavation
-
inductive reasoning
working from specific observations to a more general hypothesis
-
deductive reasoning
reasoning from theory to account for specific observational or experimental results
If...then
-
multiple working hypothesis
constantly modifying
-
briding arguments
link observations to people themselves and their life
-
testability
can be reporduced
observed, sometimes cannot be tested, but still science
-
objectivity
observe without prejudging or falsifying with preconcieved view of the world
-
science is not infallible
- 1. No single right way to do science
- 2. a scientifica approach cannot guarantee truth
- 3. finding knowldege - most probable explanation give avalible data - changing
-
characteristics of science
- 1. science is empierical and objective
- 2. Science is systematic and explicity
- 3. is logical
- 4. is explanatory and consequently predictive
- 5. is self-critical and based on testing
- 6. is public
-
humanism
a doctrine attitude or way of live that focuses on human interest and values
tends to reject a search for universals and stress the importance of individual
-
culture
so many definitions
way we live and see the world
transmitted by learning
-
archaeological culture
group of artifacts found in group at several sites
people behaved similarly
-
the main stages of archaeological research
research design - formulation
implementation
data gathering - aquisition
proccessing and analysis
interpreting
publication
-
research design
define data set background research
formulate hypothosis
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implementation
fundraising, team recrutment, permission
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data gathering
field work
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processing and analysis
cleaning, classification, lab
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interpreting
interpretive synthesis
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background research
litterature, records, previous reports
SHPO
ask local archaeologist
data bases in state museums
CRM
talking to the locals
looking at maps
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SHPO
state historic preservation office
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ask local archaeoloigist in Boston
Ellen Berkland
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CRM
Cultural resource Managment
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maps
- geological
- soil
- topo
- vegetation cover
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finding archaeological sites
found in different ways and there is no single formula
luck and hard work are major keys
hardwork - research
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surveys
remote sensing
subsurface detection
ground survey
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remote sensing
aerial photographs
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recording location
handheld GPS
total sation - provenience
3-D recording
to access the context
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remote sensing
photographic and geophysical technique
aerial survey
satellite images
SAR
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subsurface detection
- 1)geophysical
- 2) geochemical prospecting
- 3) site scale probe
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geophysical
magnemotry
resistivity
GPR
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geochemical prospecting
analysis of Phosphorus/Nitrogen
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proton procession manetometer
measure the strength of magnetism between the earth's core and sensor controled by archaeology
picks up magnetic anomalies
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magnetic anomalies produced by
- 1) thermoremanet
- 2) induced magnetism
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magnetic anomalies associated with
- 1) thermormeant magnetism
- 2) induced magnetism
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example of thermormeant magnetism
- eg kilns and hearths
- foundations, walls made by bricks or magnetic rocks
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example of induced magnetism
- eg. filled archaeological pits
- grooves and ditches
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soil resistivity survey
monitors the electrical resistance of soils near the surface of an archaeolgical site
detects buried walls or features by change sin the amount of restance registered by the resistivity meter
along the grid
or transects
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GPR
radar pulses
showing the presence and depth of possible burried features
very useful if right conditions
hooked up to GPS
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Geophysical Survey at Roman Wroxeter
- -78 ha - large site
- -excavations - 1 %
- -survey
- -63 ha of magnometer
- -15 ha electro resistance
- -5 ha GPR
- -result: the most extensive plan of a Roman-British civitas
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To GIS
- -digital maps
- -tabular information
- -aerial photography
- -other types of digital data
- -all connected into a database - allows to analyze as a whole
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manetrometry and restivity
see stuff you can't from the surface
3-D model
perform excavation to test
instead of excavation
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review of topics
spectral imagry - satellite
radar (satellite and airborn) - new ones - day/night
geophysics - magnetrometry, conductivinty, resistivity, GPR
GIS
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Aerial photography
low to ground
taken constently, easy access
inexpensive
see crop marks - are buried features - different color, taller, shorter
move city based on river course changing
mouvement of rivers can be detected
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false color composites
use of infrared - see what you can't see with naked eye
images are not natural colors
see creations of aluvial fan - sites not on, but around research area
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topo map
shape of landscape
elevation lines
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satallite imagry
come with coordinates from each pixel
for unmapped places
sometimes just mapped from satalite images
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3-D maps
landscape
good if unfammilar with area
lay maps over
pattern discovery
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pattern discovery
see how relate to landscape and each other - see map or cosmos, can do by hand, but it takes less time
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GPS
mark location with extreem acuracy
to discover sites and not get lost
make point if find something
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spectral classificaion
which ones are similar
different as related to other sites
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change detection
moniter the well being of an area - CRM - very important
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RADAR mapping (airsar)
others work in the light spectrum
energy imitated by the satellite itself
2 antenas - 2 points at once
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2 antenas on RADAR
3-D map of ground - interfermetric radar mapping
tons of detail
can zooom in and discover site
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p-band
85 cm wavelength
can penetrate foliage down to bedrock
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LIDAR
like a lasar ointer - shot to ground
exactly elevation
13 km as the airplane flies - criss cross patter, remove shadow effect - perfect
6000 km2 in one day
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SRTM
large sections of the earth at small resolution
imaged the entire globe
radar 3-D maps
can go online and download for free
pixel 90m in width
USA avalible at 30m - declassified - great for environmental, backdrop for archaeological maps
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Ciudad Vieja Project
integrate
magnetemetry - burnt clay, lbricks
EM 38 - send electric puls into ground - recieves signal, how ong for signal to reach, detect stone alignment
magnetic susceptiability - magnetic sensitivity - less likely to be overwhelmened - earth packed so much it changes
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Joya de Ceren
buried in ash
completley buried
GPR - stratigraphy of layers - more versatile
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maping with GIS
computing to get confirmation of patterns
can quantify
elite and regular intervals
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advantages of remote sensing
- -noninvasive
- -relatively nondestructive
- -can discover some subsurface features
- -regional patterns
- -setting limits of sites
- -allow target excavations
- -cheeper and faster
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disadvantages of remote sensing
- -difficult to discern patterns
- -not to discern layers of multi-layer sites (history of occupation)
- -can be misleading or wrong
- -the only way to check ground truthing
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Subsurface detection
- 1. geophyical - magnemetry, resistivity detection, GPR
- 2. Geochemical Prospecting - analysis of phospherous, nitrogen, calcium
- 3. site scale probing - augering, coring
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geochemical prospectin
- -collect soil samples and analyze
- -P, N, Ca, C
- -Higher concentrations indicative of humans (P) and animal occupation (N)
- -using modern comparative samples and ethnographic analogy
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horzontal stratigraphy
move from side to side
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Site scale probing
core probing
shovel test
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core probing
- -munsell chart
- -pointy stick - turn around
- -interval
- -at different levels
- -description of sediment and layer
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surveys can be affected by
- 1. visibilty
- 2. obtrussivness
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sites
places where artifacts, ecofacts and features are found in a cluster (concentration)
function or activity
length of occupation
cultural affiliation
location in landscape
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places where artifacts, ecofacts, and features are found in a cluster (concentration)
camp site of hunter-gatherers, but also stone henge
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function or activity
hunter-gatherers, quarry, religous site
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length of occupation
tell or seasonal
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cultural affiliation
mississippian, vinca
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location in landscape
river valley or cave
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archaeological culture
artifacts inn a general area reflect the people in a group and intereraction
material remains - artifacts
features and ecofacts
behavioral normas for people of the culture
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at one point in time you have a lot of cultures
- or varients of one culture
- can emphasize the difference
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sites
function or activity - hunters-gatherers, quarry, religious
length of occupation
culture
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excavations
can't excavate twice
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which site to excavate?
- 1. those that are endangered
- 2. well preserved contain new infromation important for construding past human excavation
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why excavations
the main way of collectin archaeolical data in sites
- a) main aims is to assess context
- b) assess functional an temperal significance
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main aim is to assess context
- provience 3-D
- association
- matrix
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assess functional and temperal significance
for reconstructing past human behavior
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matrix
substrate around artifact
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provience
exact 3-D location of any archaeological object in space
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association
information, what is found near the object
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context
info about provience, matrix, and assocaiton together resulting from behavioral and transformational processes
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primary context
intact postion since its origional deposition
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secondary context
situation has been altered by postdepositional process
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What type of excavations
- a) total coverage
- b) partial coevage
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partial coverage
sampling
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sampling
arbitrary
non-arbitrary
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radom
choose how many
no human bias
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stratified random
take different parts
how many in each area
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systematic
set every other square or such
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stratified unaligned
not in same place of every square
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how do we excavate
- in layers
- arbitrary layers
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arbitrary layers
- about shovel depth
- as soon as get to soil change - go with natural layers
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Smithosinal Trinomaial
- SHPO's adoption
- unique inventory control system of sites
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Why archaeologoists dig square holes?
methods - penetrating, clearing
always provience control
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all measurments tied into
site datum - to record
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pentrating excavation
shovel test
test pit
trench
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shovel test
30 cm
CRM, exploritory
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Test Pit
(1 x 1 m)
most basic, general idea of stratigraphy
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trench
(1 x 2 m)
horizontal extent of features, large excavations
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Clearing excavations
exposen large areas - slower, but more careful
leaving bulks for stratigraphy
strip off areas reveal plan of buildings
decapage or pealing back units
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decapage
peeling back units
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archaeological geology
the application of geological principles and techniques to the solution of archaeological problems
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large/regional context
>102 km2
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Meso scale
~ 10 to 102 km2
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microscale - microstratigraphy
~ cm
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human activities
where activities are more intense
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raw materials
archaeometry
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environment and landscape evolution
- roman terracing
- reconstructing bay around troy
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site formation
- depositional process
- post depositional process
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depositional process
anthropogenic
syndepositional geogenic
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post deposional process
anthropogenic
geogenic
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sedimentology in anthropogenic context
identification of the components
origin of the components
transport processes
deposition processes
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disciplines within geoarchaeology
remote sensing
geophysics
oceanogrpahy and climatology
glaciology
sedimentology
soil science
geomorphology
minerology, geochemistry, and petrology
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remote sensing
air photos
maps - geoogy, soils, vegitation, topo
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geophyics
magnetometry
electric resistivity
GPR
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Oceanography and climatology
marine isotope record
climates
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glaciology
glaciation
glacier
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soil scienc
soil formation and physical, chemcial, and biological modification
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geomorphology
phical landscape formation
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mineralology, geochemistry, and Petrology
mineral - provience, activities, conservation
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uniformitarianism
the same natural laws and processes that opperate in the universe now, have always operated in the universein the past are at work now
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mineral formation
solid transformation - plagioclase
temp
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igneious rocks
course or fine grained
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corse igneous rocks
phaneritic
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fine ignous rocks
aphanitic
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phaneritic
cooled slowly
intrusive
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aphanitic
cooled quick
extrusive
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classification
mineral fine or course grained
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pyroclastic sediments
- glass
- fragments of various size
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sedimentary
lake, alluvial fan, shelf, marine environment - can tell where formed
close to shore - sandstone
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flint vs. limestone
- calcium carbonate - cocolithophores
- silica - diatoms
- die and reach the floor
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visible grains and clay sized grains
siliciclastic - grain size, conglomerate, breccia
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in solution
chemical vs biochemical
carbonate rock
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metamorphism
high tmep - high pressure
contact
burial
fault
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sedimentology
- sediments
- those materials deposited at the earth's surface under low temp and pressure
- river delta
- flood plains
- glacial environment
- alluvial fans
- aelian environment
- shoreline environment
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sediment types
- grading
- graded bedding
- crossbedding
- ripple marks
- mudcrack
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grading
size and organizaiton
normal inverse ungraded
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normal grading
big on bottom, small on tope
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invers gradign
small on top, big on bottom
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ungraded
all around high energy
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cross beding
- sand dunes - wind - sand
- water current - indication of water
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ripple marks
near the shore
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mud cracks
clay, drey and wet, swelling
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regolith and soil formation
pedality = soil development - single seperate agragests when well devleoped
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description
- field properties
- lab analysis - texture, mineraology, pH, OM
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C horizon
similar to color underneath
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field
- color
- structure
- boundries
- consistance
- stickyness
- plasticity
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lab
- particle size
- pH
- minerology
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Soil color
- indication of soil type and condition
- indication of certain chemical and physical makeup
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boundaries
- smooth
- wavy
- irregular broken
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pH 6 and higher
any bone would be dissolved
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mor
beneath hearthland and forrest, acid
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modeer
between mor and mull, richer soil
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mull
acid, freely drained soils
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sedimentary environment in relation to archaeological sites
- living sites are here
- need to understand the probability of finding some sites
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sedimetns
those materials deposited at the earths surface
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particle size of sand
2 mm - .05 mm
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particle size of silt
.05 -.002 mm
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particle size of clay
<.002 mm
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why is particle size important?
indicator of enviornment
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how is clay formed
low energy - stil water lake
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texture of sediment
- percentage of sand/silt/clay
- not so important unless indicator like paleosoil
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sorting of sediments
- well - same range size - long time and specifica
- unsorted - many ranges of size - rapid, high energy
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roundness of soil
how round
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roughness of soil
particle surrface
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sphericity of soil
how close to sphere
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streams and floodplains
flat land adjacent to a stream or river that experiences occasional flooding
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alluvium
anything deposited by water - non-marine, not underwater
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Colluvium
comes down from slope - gravity
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Alluvial fan
- fan shaped area built up by alluvial deposits
- usually @ foot of steep slope as it opens onto a valley floor or plain
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fluvial terraces
- terraces around a river
- really recent- human remains
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cutbank
steep and erroded
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pointbar
low and deposits - lateral accretion
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oxbow lake formation
- flood cut off along neck
- stranded meander
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types of weathering
chemical and mechanical
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