HPP

in aqueous solutions

enzymes to speed them up to where they need to be

• the breaking down of elements into sub units
• uses energy

• the putting together of small molecules to one large one
• a gain in energy (endothermic)

proteins that funcion as biological catalysts and permit reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperature

substance an enzyme acts on

• lower activation energy in a reaction
• facilitate molecular interactions (bring them closer together)

• the substrate approaches the active site on the enzyme
• the substrate binds to the active site (very specific like key)
• enzyme breaks covalent bonds and monomers release via hydrolysis

• they remain unchanged in the reaction and are ready to repeat the process
• they work very fast
• they can change shape easily with conformation change

chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme

• activation or deactivation of the enzyme
• cells can turn on or off

• inorganic partner of enzyme
• binds to enzyme and induces change in its shape, which activates the active site

orgainc cofactors

• nitrogenous base
• sugar
• phosphate group

• ATP
• adenine ribose phosphate

• the body's most important energy transfer molecule and cells cant survive without
• stores energy that is gained from exergonic reactions

holds energy in covalent bonds in the 2 and 3 bond of phosphates

• addition of free phosphate group to another molecule
• carried out by kinases
• constantly making ATP in body

the transformation of glucose (6C) to pyruvic acid 2 (3C) and 2 ATP formed

transition of pyruvic acid to lactic acid

• use of oxygen to convert pyruvic acid to ATP and CO2 and H2O
• forms 36 ATP molecules

in the mitochondria

the cell controls how many molecules each enzyme makes

• when a molecule other than one of the substrate binds to an enzyme at a special regulatory site outside the active site
• this caused a change in conformation of the enzyme and it not to function

something (inhibitor) binds to active site to activate site or cause no reaction

• protein won't function with phosphate addition
• there are active and inactive forms of enzymes

prevents an enzyme from acting and stops the reaction

an enzyme's activity is stimulated by a regulatory molecule and the reactions speeds up

region of an enzyme surface to which a substrate molecule binds in order to undergo a catalyzed reaction

all ozidative carbohydrate consumption is a matter of glucose catabolism or break down to CO2 and H2O

• to transfer energy from glucose to ATP
• not to produce CO2 and water

• 1-energy investment phase where 2xATP are converted to 2xADP
• 2-energy generation where 4ADP are converted to 2xATP and 2xNAD+ are converted to NADH

a series of small steps, each controlled by a separate enzyme in which energy is released in small managable amounts and as much as possible is transferred to ATP and the rest is released as heat

• glycolysis
• anaerobic respiration
• aerobic respiration

• remove electrons from intermediate compounds
• enzymes transfer the H enzymes to coenzymes
• coenzymes donate H later in reaction
• these are helpers that enzymes NEED

• NAD+
• NAD+ +2H+ = NADH + H+

• FAD
• FAD + 2H+ = FADH2

• organelles specialized for synthesizing APT
• the powerhouses of the cell

the cristae and the matrix

• contains ribosomes, enzymes for ATP
• the space between cristae

• inner membrane that has folds
• (mitochondria has 2 membranes)

many cells have more of certian traits that others based on the function

atoms

molecules

organelles

cells

tissues

organs

organ systems

a single, complete individual

human body is made of 11 organ systems

structure composed of 2 or more tissue types that work together and carry out particular function

a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function

the smallest unit of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life

the study of cells and organelles

microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual function

make up organelles and other cellular components

the smallest particles with unique chemical identities

the theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components

there are emergent properties of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts

open body and take a look inside

viewing the inside of the body without surgery

branch of medicine converned with imaging

study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

examination of cells with microscope

the molecular detail seen in electron microscope

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

not 2 humans are exactly alike, there are variations in the types of organs and the organ locations

physiology of nervous system

physiology of hormones

mechanisms of disease

limitations on human experimentation like animal testing

the body's ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintaining relatively stable internal conditions

discovered constant internal conditions regardless of external conditions

coined the term homeostasis

illness or death, you need a state of balance

• receptors-sense changes in the body
• control center-make a decision and direct response
• effector-carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis

• blood pressure
• body temperature

self amplifying cycle and a normal way of producing rapid changes (blood clotting, child birth, fever, protein digestion)