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Anthropology
study of humans
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Archaeology
study of artifacts/tools/people of past life style
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Biocultural approach
studying humans looking at interactions between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation.
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Biological anthropology
studies the biological evolution of human variations of past and present
genetics, ecology, primates, evolution
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Cultural Anthropology
also called social anthropology, deals with human cultures and society
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forensic anthropology
"applied anthropology", helps solve contemporary problems which deals with legal settings (crimes, cause of death, etc)
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linguistic anthropology
study of how language is used in various social contexts
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sociolinguistics
study of relationship between language and social factors, such as class, ethnicity, sex
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paleoanthropology
study of human evolution through fossil records
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osteology
study of the skeleton and its functions
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human biology
study of human growth, development, adaptations and human genetics
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primatology
study of primates
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scientific method
method that involves observation, hypothesis, and theories to test it out
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Science
way of acquiring knowledge through observations of phenomena
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Carl Linnaeus
Taxonomy, classification system (binomial nomenclature)
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Taxonomy
classification of organisms into groups based on similarities
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Thomas Malthus
competition for resources; human will competes for resources, population size is limited by food supply -> struggle for survival
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Alfred Wallace
proposed theory of evolution due to natural selection
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Darwin
theory of evolution, natural selection
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Lamarck
proposed that evolution resulted from inheritance of acquired characteristics
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Evolution
change in allele frequency over time
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Natural selection
natural process resulting in evolution of organisms best adapted to environment; survival of the fittest
traits make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce; becomes more common in population over successful generations
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Adaptive radiation
diversification of species into separate forms that each adapt to occupy a specific environmental niche
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Mendel
experimented with breeding garden peas
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Mendelian inheritance
manner in which genes and traits are passed down from parents to offsprings
ex: autosomal dominance, autosomal recessive, sex-linked genes
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Heredity
passing of traits from parents to offsprings
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genotype
genetic composition (specific allele makeup)
AA, Aa, aa, etc..
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phenotype
physical expression of genotype; what an organism looks like because of interactions of genotype
could also be affected by environment
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Law of Segregation
each pair of allele seperate during gamete formation; each gamete contains one allele from each pair (of parents)
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Law of Independent
gametes get random pairs of genes from each parents
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Heterozygous
two different alleles
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Homozygous
having identical alleles
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Modern synthesis
union of ideas from several biological specialties which provides a widely accepted account of evolution
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DNA
nucleic acid which contains genetic instructions for development of living organisms; blueprint of life
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Mitchondria
cellular respiration; produces ATP
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Chromosomes
strings of genetic material made of DNA and protein; humans contain 46 (23 pairs)
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Homologous
having same evolutionary origin, but not necessary same function; same ancestry
ie: wings of a bat and arm of a man
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Nucleus
center of a cell containing DNA and RNA
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Autosomes
chromosome that are not sex cells
ie: humans have 22 pairs of autosomes, with last pair being sex cells
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sex chromosomes
chromosome that determines sex of individual
females = xx, males = xy
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gene
basic unit of heredity of living organism; contains information to build and maintain organism's cells
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Allele
variation of gene located at specific locus of chromosome; can be hetero or homo
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Locus
location of gene on chromosome
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Polygenic inheritance
several gene pairs affect the trait; also influenced from environment
ie: skin color, eye color, height, etc.
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Pleiotropy
one gene affects multiple traits
ie: Phenylketonuria (PKU), causes mental retardation, affect coloration of hair and skin
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Replication
occurs in nucleus, production of somatic cells and sex cells
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Protein synthesis
complex chemicals which have 2 different classes; either structural (body tissues) or regulatory (enzymes and hormones)
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Regulation
regulate biologicall processes in body; turns genes OFF or ON
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Meiosis
creates haploid cells = half set of chromosomes
(occurs in female ovaries, 1 egg/menstrual cycle)
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Mitosis
production of identical somatic cells; creates diploid cells = full set of chromosomes
ie: how single cell becomes organism
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Gametes
sex cells that carry the genes donated by each parent
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Somatic cells
(diploids), is NOT involved in reproduction
example: helps the body heal
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Haploid
half of set of chromosomes
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Diploid
full set of chromosomes
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Recombination
occurs in meiosis; creates a "novel" combination of genetic material
reason as to why siblings can look very different
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Structural proteins
protein that contributes to cell or tissue structures
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Regulatory proteins
regulates gene expressions
example: controls our height, production of lactase, etc.
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Genome
full DNA sequence of an organism
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Balanced polymorphism
equilibrium of two or more alleles that remains constant over periods of time
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Gene flow
exchange of genetic material (alleles) between populations; NOT SAME AS MIGRATION
- Within a population = INCREASE gene flow (more variety between two different populations) (ex: Californians breeding together)
- Between population = DECREASE gene flow (less variety between two populations) (ex: Californians breeding with Canadians)
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Genetic Drift
random event which alters allele frequencies, such as plagues, famine, war
SMALL POPULATIONS ARE MOST AFFECTED
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Founder Effect
formation of new population from few individuals; the small group exclusively contributes to gene pool
ex: amish group
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Mutation
random change in gene; can happen in any cell
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Point mutation
change in a single base of gene (such as eye color)
ex: can cause the natural brown eyes to be diluted to blue eyes
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Frameshift mutation
change of insertion or deletion of 1 or more bases
ex: Huntington's Disease
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x-linked disorders
females are carriers, disease that "skips" generations
males = susceptible to disorders, because of only 1 x
ex: Hemophilia, absence of clotting factor protein in blood causes excessive bleeding; "royal disease" - queen victoria had it
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Sickel-cell anemia
genetic disorder that affects blood cell shape; body has reduced capacity to transport oxygen
result of a mutation (1 amino acid sub. in hemoglobin)
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Stabilizing Selection
favors anti-extremes, average is favored
ex: human birth weight (too fat or too light = bad)
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Directional Selection
one extreme form of a trait is favored; better suited for an environment, allele frequency shifts
ex: over millions of years, brain size increases
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Balancing Selection
multiple alleles are effected, favors heterozygote forms; maintains balanced polymorphism
ex: sickle-cell anemia
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Endogamy
marriage within one's tribe or group
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Biocultural evolution
evolution process that is result of culture's interaction with biology throughout human evolutionary history
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Lactose intolerance
unable to produce lactase enzyme to digest lactose; become intolerant of it
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