A disease caused by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells.
Chromosome
Thread-like structure found in the nucleus of a cell. Contains the genetic information in form of the genes.
Cytology
The study of the structure and function of cells.
Cytoplasm
The cellular material between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
Gene
Single unit of genetic information.
Genetics
The study of how characteristics are transmitted from one generation to the next.
Histology
The study of the structure and function of tissues
Hyperplasia
Enlargement of an organ or tissue due to an increase in cells
Neoplasm
A new and abnormal growth of cells or tissues
Nucleus
Control center of the cell. Contains the genetic information within its chromosomes
Plasma/cell membrane
Outer, flexible boundary of cells.
carcin(o)-
Cancer Carcinogen = cancer causing agent
cyt(o)-
Cell Cytosol = the watery component of the
cytoplasm
-ectomy
Surgical removal, excision, cutting out
EX.Appendectomy = surgical removal of the
appendix
end(o)-
Inside Endogenous = growing or originating from
inside the body
ex(o)-
Outside Exogenous = originating from outside the
body
extra
Outside of, beyond, or in addition to
Extracellular = located outside a cell
hist(o)-
Tissue Histology = the study of the structure and
function of tissues
iasis
Abnormal condition or disease Psoriasis = skin disorder with thick, silvery
scales
inter
Between, among Intercellular = located or happening
between cells
intra
Within, into, or during
Intracellular = located inside a cell
ism
Condition or state of Hirsutism = a condition with excessive
hair growth in women
mal
Bad, poor or evil
Malabsorption = deficient absorption
(intake) of food in the small intestine
malacia
Abnormal softening Osteomalacia = softening of bone tissue
ne(o)-
New
Neoplasia = formation of new, abnormal
tissue growth
necrosis
Tissue or cell death Osteonecrosis = death of bone tissue
oma
Tumor, neoplasm Melanoma = black skin cancer
osis
Disease or abnormal condition
Hyperostosis = excessive growth of bone
tissue
-ostomy, -stomy
Creation of an opening or the opening
created
Colostomy = creation of an opening in the
abdominal wall into colon
-otomy, -tomy
Cutting or a surgical incision
Colotomy = surgical incision of the colon
pathy
Disease, feeling, emotion Discopathy =disease on an intervertebral
disc
plasia
Development, growth, formation Hyperplasia = enlargement of an organ or
tissue
plasty
Surgical repair
Rhinoplasty = plastic surgery on the nose
pur(o)-, py(o)
Pus Purulent = full of, containing, or consisting
of pus
rrhagia
Bleeding or abnormal/excessive fluid
discharge
Menorrhagia = abnormally heavy
menstrual bleeding
-rrhea
Flow, discharge Diarrhea = increased frequency of bowel movement with liquid stools
-sclerosis
Abnormal hardening Arteriosclerosis = hardening of the arteries
What are the 4 concepts of cell theory?
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
Tissue, organ, and organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell functions.
The biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific subcellular structures (organelles).
The continuity of life has a cellular basis – without living cells there are no living tissue, organs, or organisms.
Human cells have three basic parts: What are they?
1. The plasma or cell membrane is not rigid or strong, but forms a flexible boundary around the cell. Its main task is to
separate the fluid inside the cell (intracellular fluid) from the fluid outside the cell (extracellular fluid). The fluids have
different compositions and need to be separated for normal cell function. However, the membrane will allow certain
substances to pass through easily, making it selectively permeable.
It is made of two layers of oily substances (lipids) with integrated protein structures. These membrane proteins are
important for transport of substances (such as nutrients and waste products) into (endocytosis) and out of the cell
(exocytosis), communication with other cells, and the joining of cells to form tissues and organs.
Another important building block of the membrane is cholesterol. It increases membrane stability and fluidity allowing
the cell to change its shape.
2. The cytoplasm is the cellular material inside the cell membrane. Its three major elements are:
Cytosol – Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.).
Cytoplasmic inclusions – Granules of glycogen (a storage form of glucose), pigments, lipid droplets, vacuoles, or
crystals.
Cytoplasmic organelles – The metabolic machinery of the cell. Each cell contains thousands of organelles with
specific functions, depending on the overall function of the cell.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell.
They burn nutrients, such as sugar and fat.
They require oxygen and store the energy
released in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), which is used to power
biochemical and physical processes inside the
cell. Mitochondria have their own DNA and
therefore can cause certain disorders that
are passed on from mothers to their children.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site of
protein and fat production (for example
hormones).
The Golgi apparatus is the FedEx or UPS of
the cell. It packs proteins and fats and ships
them to other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes are important for destruction of
bacteria, viruses, toxins, and injured or
nonuseful tissue.
3. All body cells except mature red blood cells have a nucleus. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains
the cellular DNA. Most cells have only one nucleus (mononucleate cells), but very large cells, such as skeletal muscle
cells, may have many nuclei (multinucleate cells). The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane that separates
the nucleoplasm inside from the cytoplasm outside. The main component of the nucleoplasm is chromatin, which
itself is made up mainly of DNA. When a cell prepares to divide, chromatin condenses into dense, rod-like structures
called chromosomes (see below). A nucleolus is a dark-staining, spherical body within the nucleus. Typically there is
one or two per nucleus. It is the site where the information contained in our DNA is being read and transcribed into
instructions for the production of proteins.
What are the two steps of the cell cycle?
1. Interphase: The cells grow vigorously by using nutrients to produce proteins and organelles, etc. Cells that prepare for
cell division also duplicate their genetic material prior to undergoing division.
2. Cell division (mitotic phase): Regulated by “go” and “stop” signals, the cell divides in two steps:
Mitosis: Splitting of the nucleus into two nuclei.
Cytokinesis: Splitting of the cell into two cells. The daughter cells are identical copies of the mother cell as they
contain the same genetic information.
Not all cells of the human body can divide, and we can classify cells by their ability to divide. T OR F ?
TRUE
Can a heart attack or stroke be repaired by healthy cells?
No.
Permanent cells do not normally undergo cell division. These cells are formed during embryonic development and
remain the same throughout our life. If they are damaged, for example during a heart attack (cardiac muscle cells) or a
stroke (brain cells), the damage cannot be repaired by a division of healthy cells. This explains why a heart attack or a
stroke leads to lasting structural and functional damage. Because these cells do not undergo cell division, they are
unlikely to develop cancer.
Can Stable cells, such as the liver and kidney cells, divide to replace damaged cells? Yes or No
Yes
Stable cells, such as the liver and kidney cells, can divide to replace damaged cells in order to restore organ structure
and function. They are more likely to develop neoplasms (cancers) than permanent cells.
What are labile cells?
Labile cells are continuously dividing to replace lost (skin) or aged cells (blood). As mentioned above, cells that
prepare for cell division must first duplicate their genetic material (DNA). During this process, thousands of steps have
to take place in a certain sequence and errors happen fairly often, which creates changes in the DNA. These changes
may have no effect on the structure and function of the newly created daughter cells, or they can lead to death of the
cells. But, the changes can also create rogue cells that keep growing beyond the normal growth rate for their cell type.
Most abnormal growths, such as cancers, develop from tissues with labile cells.
What is genetics?
Genetics (gene- producing, -tics relating to) is the science of what role genes play in health and disease and how genes are
transferred from parents to their offspring.
What are genes?
Genes are the basic units of genetic information. They are sequences of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) that contain the information for protein production (synthesis).
Why do girls bodies look different than boys?
bone cells are influenced by sex hormones during puberty. Girls develop a skeleton that
is different from the skeleton of boys because female sex hormones (estrogen) activate different genes in the cell than male
sex hormones
Each chromosome contains _______ genes or more.
100,000
Females have a pair of
_ chromosomes males have one __ chromosome and one __ chromosome.
Females: XX
Males:XY
The gene that is stronger is called a __________
dominant gene
weaker gene is called a ___________________. ___________________can only determine the appearance of a trait if there is no dominant gene around. Because of that, two parents with
blonde hair and blue eyes cannot have children with dark hair and dark eyes.
recessive gene
Genetic mutations are caused by changes to the 1._________of genes. They can result from by exposure to chemicals or
radiation, among other causes. If the mutation affects the DNA of a body cell (somatic cell mutation), it may affect the
individual, but the change cannot be passed on to their 2.________. For example, smoking can cause cancer by changes to the
DNA of lung cells; this change and the cancer cannot be passed on. If, on the other hand, the mutation affects the DNA of a
sex cell (sperm and egg), this so-called 3._______cell mutation can be passed on to the next generation.
1. DNA
2. Children
3. Gametic
Sometimes, scientists are initiating DNA changes on purpose in a process called __________________. It is used to create
bacteria that produce drugs such as insulin, for example
genetic engineering
What are The four basic types of tissues:
1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium (epi- upon, above, -thelium tissue) covers inner and outer surfaces in order to form
boundaries between different environments.
Covering and lining epithelia are found on external (skin, see Module 5 Integumentary System) and internal
surfaces (for example, the mucous membrane of the mouth).
Glands consist of one or more cells that makes and secretes a mostly watery (aqueous) fluid. Exocrine glands
secrete their products into ducts that release the fluid onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities (exo- outside, -
crine secrete). The sweat glands of the skin and the salivary glands of our mouth are typical examples of exocrine
glands. Endocrine (endo- inside, -crine secrete) glands, on the other hand, produce hormones that are released inside our
body. The hormones travel through body fluids (such as lymph and blood) to their target organs (see also Module
10 Endocrine System).
2. Connective tissues support, protect, and bind other tissues together. They are the most abundant and widely
distributed tissue type in the human body. Unlike the other basic tissue types, connective tissues are not defined by
their cells. Instead, the structure and function of the different connective tissues is shaped by the extracellular matrix
that surrounds the cells. It can be liquid (blood), have a rubber-like consistency (cartilage), or be rock-solid (bone). As a
result, connective tissues can form elastic structures that are flexible but return to their original form (our ear),
structures that are stronger than steel cables (tendon and ligaments), and structures that can withstand high pressure
(teeth) (see also Module 6 Skeletal System).
3. Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It has two groups of cells:
Nerve cells (or neurons) have the ability to generate electric signals. These signals are used to collect, transfer,
and store information, and to make conscious decisions (see also Module 8 Nervous System).
Supporting cells called glia cells or neuroglia
4. Muscle tissue has the ability to contract and cause movement. It achieves this by converting chemical energy from our
food into mechanical energy (see also Module 7 Muscular System). There are three types of muscle tissue:
Smooth muscle is the oldest muscle tissue in evolutionary terms. It cannot be controlled voluntarily. It is found
mostly in the walls of hollow organs, such as bladder and stomach.
Cardiac muscle is found in the wall of the heart only. Just like smooth muscle, it cannot be controlled by us, and
can generate its own contraction rhythm. Because of this ability, our heart keeps beating even when we are asleep
or unconscious.
Skeletal muscle needs signals from the nervous system to contract. Skeletal muscles attach to bones or skin and
help the body to move and manipulate its environment.
What are the most abundant and widely
distributed tissue type in the human body.
Connective tissue
Unlike the other basic tissue types, connective tissues are not defined by
their cells. Instead, the structure and function of the different connective tissues is shaped by the _________________________
that surrounds the cells. It can be liquid (blood), have a rubber-like consistency (cartilage), or be rock-solid (bone). As a
result, connective tissues can form elastic structures that are flexible but return to their original form (our ear),
structures that are stronger than steel cables (tendon and ligaments), and structures that can withstand high pressure
(teeth) (see also Module 6 Skeletal System).
extracellular matrix
_________________ is the oldest muscle tissue in evolutionary terms. It cannot be controlled voluntarily. It is found
mostly in the walls of hollow organs, such as bladder and stomach.
Smooth muscle
is found in the wall of the heart only. Just like smooth muscle, it cannot be controlled by us, and
can generate its own contraction rhythm. Because of this ability, our heart keeps beating even when we are asleep
or unconscious.
Cardiac muscle
_____________needs signals from the nervous system to contract. ____________muscles attach to bones or skin and
help the body to move and manipulate its environment.
Skeletal muscle
_______________ Forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Has the ability to generate electric
signals that are used to collect, transfer, and store information, and to make
conscious decisions
Nervous tissue
thalassemia is a blood condition that affects people of what descent?
Mediterranean
What is Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Genetic disorder that causes the buildup of a thick mucus in the lungs, pancreas, liver, kidney, and intestines.
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Chromosomal disorder with one additional chromosome 21. Occurs in 1 of every 1000 newborns. The IQ of the affected patients can range from near normal to well below normal. There are associated malformations of internal organs.
Fragile X syndrome
Genetic disorder that may lead to mild to moderate intellectual disability. Is
considered to be the most common cause for autism. It usually is more
severe in boys than girls. The patients have long faces, large prominent
ears, flat feet, a low muscle tone, and hypermobile joints. Males may have
large testicles after puberty.
Klinefelter syndrome
Chromosomal disorder occurring in men only. They have an additional X chromosome. Usually not diagnosed until puberty when the secondary male sex characteristics do not develop, but the breasts start growing instead
Turner syndrome
Chromosomal disorder occurring in women only. They only have one X chromosome instead of two. At puberty they don’t develop female sex characteristics, but have normal menstruation.
Hemophilia
A group of genetic bleeding disorders due to a diminished blood clotting ability. Some cases are minor only, while other patients suffer severe repeated bleeding that can lead to organ damage and death.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) A genetic disorder leading to lack of an important enzyme. Without early
detection and dietary treatment, children suffer irreparable brain damage
A genetic disorder leading to lack of an important enzyme. Without early
detection and dietary treatment, children suffer irreparable brain damage
Muscular dystrophy (MD)
A group of genetic disorders that lead to progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles. Patients often die from respiratory failure
Some genetic diseases, such as phenylketonuria and sickle cell anemia, can be diagnosed before birth by testing
amniotic fluid obtained via amniotic fluid test 1._______ or amniocentesis (-centesis surgical puncture). Other tests, for
example, the _2__________and ___2__________, use the blood of pregnant women to screen for genetic disorders such as
Down syndrome.
1. ATF
2. Triple screen and quad test
Tissues and organs can grow in response to a physiologic demand. If that growth is achieved by cells dividing, it is called __________________
hyperplasia (hyper- more than normal, excessive; -plasia growth, formation)
The uterus, on the other hand, is made of smooth muscle
cells that can divide. Therefore, the uterus of a pregnant woman increases to accommodate the growing baby by muscle
cells dividing. This process is called physiologic hyperplasia, because it is a growth stimulated by a natural (physiologic)
process.
If the growth is based on cells getting bigger,
but not dividing, it is called
hypertrophy (hyper- more than normal, excessive; -trophy development).
For example, muscles
grow bigger when we work hard. However, skeletal muscle cells cannot divide, they can only increase in size. Thus, the
9
increase in muscle mass is called a physiologic hypertrophy
_____________________ is a generic term for any kind of new growth ; although, it is usually used
to describe a cell or tissue proliferation that is not caused by physiologic demands
Neoplasia or neoplasm
(neo- new, -plasia growth, formation)
Malignant neoplasms are customarily referred to as _____________.
Cancer
Cancers can develop from basically any tissue; however, tissues with a high regeneration rate, such as the skin, have a
greater chance of developing cancer. Because of this fact, more than 80% of all cancers develop from _______________________
(carcinomas).
epithelial tissues
What is the leading cause of death in the US?
Coronary artery disease
Cancer ranks both worldwide and in the United States as the __________leading cause of death
second
The most common cancers in men are ________________________
________________________ and
____________________
prostate, lung/bronchus, and colon/rectum cancer.
The most common cancers in women are ________________________
________________________ and
____________________
, breast cancer is the
most common cancer form, followed by lung/bronchus, and colon/rectum cancer
