Key Science Skills Flashcards

An explanation of how something works that was figured out using the scientific process.

Ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles.

Casual observations or indications rather than rigorous or scientific analysis; evidence that comes from personal experience.

A view, judgment, or appraisal formed in the mind about a particular matter.

A theory is a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about cause and effect.

A model is a representation of a concept, process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand.

A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.

A testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation.

The group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

The variable for which quantities are manipulated by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

The variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable.

Variables other than the IV that a researcher holds constant in an investigation, to ensure that changes in the DV are solely due to changes in the IV.

• A type of investigation which measures the casual relationship between one or more independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling for all other variables. 
• Advantage - allows researchers to determine cause and effect between variables 
• Disadvantage - lack external validity (unable to generalise to wider population)

• An in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world. 
• Advantage - utilized when information is needed about a specific phenomenon that is rare or hard to study repeatedly with a large group of people. 
• Disadvantage - can be expensive and time-consuming

• A type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them. 
• Advantage - can suggest a relationship existing between variables
• Disadvantage - cannot predict causation

• Correlation refers to the strength of relationship between variables. on the other hand, causation refers to a relationship between variables wherein a change in one variable causes a change in another. 
• It is often difficult for causation to be established. In correlational studies, causation cannot be determined.

• Classification is the arrangement of a phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets.
• Identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.
• Advantage - provides a common language to communicate about scientific phenomena 
• Disadvantage - can over-simplify reality

• Refers to any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory. 
• Advantage - provides rich, detailed data
• Disadvantage - can be time-consuming and expensive

• Refers to the process of collating and analyzing secondary data related to other people's scientific findings and/or viewpoints, in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data. 
• Advantage - provides background information that can inform new studies and hypotheses
• Disadvantage - may be time-consuming

• Refers to the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small/large scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system, involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system. 
• Can be physical or conceptual.
• Advantage - can provide explanatory tools
• Disadvantage - may over-simplify reality

• Refers broadly to the design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures. 
• Advantage - may meet human need
• Disadvantage - can be expensive and time-consuming

• Refers to the process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system. 
• Advantage - provides insight into potential circumstances and events
• Disadvantage - can be time-consuming and expensive

Refers to the group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable

Refers to the group of participants in an experiment who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order to serve as a bassline for comparison.

• An experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.
• Advantage - less people needed, good for real-world settings
• Disadvantage - can produce order effects

• An experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition. 
• Advantage - may be less time consuming, does not cause order-effects
• Disadvantage - may require more participants, differences between participants can affect results

• An experimental design which combines elements of within subjects and between subjects designs. Allows experimenters to note differences that occur within each experimental group over time, and also compare differences.
• Advantage - allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared
• Disadvantage - can be more costly and time-consuming to plan, conduct, and then analyse results

A method of fieldwork in which a researcher watches and listens to the participants of a study, which no direct intervention and involvement, or manipulation of variables.

Involve a researcher asking question to gather in-depth information about a particular topic, theme, or idea. Provides rich, qualitative data for the researcher to analyse.

A set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer digitally or with pen and paper.

Running focus groups is a qualitative research method which involves a researcher conduction a discussion with a small group of people on a specific topic. Groups are formed on the basis of some shared characteristics relevant to the discussion. Participants' responses and interactions with each other are recorded to form rich, qualitative data.

A traditional approach to group discussion which involves talking, exchanging ideas, reflection and deep, considered listening without judgement. Researcher is an active member of discussion.

Refers to the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

Refers to the subset of the research population who participate in a study. A sample is used because it is often not possible to test everyone in a given population.

The ability of a sample's results to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population.

The way a sample is selected from the population of study - convenience, random, and stratified sampling.

• Any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population. 
• Advantage - most time and cost effective
• Disadvantage - most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, therefore harder to generalise

• Any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected. 
• Advantage - can be more representative
• Disadvantage - time consuming, may not create an entirely representative sample when the sample is small

• Any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures the strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample. 
• Advantage - most likely to produce a representative sample
• Disadvantage - can be time-consuming and expensive

Refers to the process of assigning participants to experiment conditions or groups.

Ensures every sample participant has an equal change of being allocated to any group within the experiment.

Any variable that is not the IV but may cause unwanted effect on the DV.

A variable that has directly and systematically affected the DV, apart from the IV.

Refer to characteristics of a study's participants that may affect the results. This include characteristics like participants' age, intelligence, and socio-economic status.

Refers to the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour.

Refers to when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs.

Refers to when the expectations of the researcher affects the results of the experiment. (May inadvertently bias the way they collect and record data, or how they interact with participants)

Refers to any environmental factor that may affect the DV. Temperature, lighting, weather, and time of day are all examples of situational variables.

Occur when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions. This introduces unwanted situational variables for either specific participants of entire experimental groups.

Having a large sample size increases the sample's representativeness of the population, which means that the sample is more likely to have a similar level of diversity as it does in the population. Random or stratified sampling also ensures a more representative sample which helps to ensure a sample which is unbiased.

• A method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way. 
• Eg: one half: condition a -> condition b, other half: condition b -> condition a

The purpose of providing placebos is to compare the results of participants given an active intervention, with those who are in the controlled placebo group. (not to be confused with placebo effect)

A procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to. This helps reduce participants' expectations.

A procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to. This helps to prevent the extraneous variables of experimenter and participant expectations.

Ensuring that each participant in an experiment receives the exact same instructions and follows the same procedures in each condition allows researchers to more conclusively infer that results are due to the independent variable.

Refers to data collected first-hand by a researcher.

Refers to data sourced from others' prior research, not directly by the current researcher.

Data that is expressed non-numerically, for example a participant's verbal description of how they are feeling.

Data that is expressed numerically, such as test scores or measurements of weight.

Factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion. Eg: a person's weight in kilograms.

Data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation. Often comes from participants' own qualitative descriptions and self-reports.

Statistics that summarise, organise, and describe data.

Percentage formula = given number divided by total number x 100

Percentage change formula = (old number - new number) divided by old number x 100

Descriptive statistics that summarise a data set by describing the centre of the distribution of the data set with a single value. These include mean, median, mode.

Average. Adding up and dividing by total number of data values in the data set.

Middle number

Most common

A value that differs significantly from other values in a data set.

Statistics that summarise and describe the spread and distribution of a data set. These include range and standard deviation.

A measure of variability that is a value obtained by subtracting the lowest value in a data set from the highest value.

A measure of variability, expressed as a value that describes the spread of data around the mean. Shows how much data 'deviates' from the mean.

Refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

Refers to the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other. Eg: a precise measurement would hit the same place each time, regardless of how close it is to the bullseye.

Errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount. Eg: readings are consistently 100 grams lighter than the true value of the object's weight. Affect accuracy.

Errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance. Affect precision.

Refers to the lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to potential sources of variation in knowledge.

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions within a short period of time.

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions.

The extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to.

The extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings.

A statement that summarises the findings of a study, including whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected.

Refers to the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

Research is the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

The principle of avoiding causing harm.

The consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value: giving value and consideration where necessary.

The privacy, protection, and security of a participant's personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

Processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks, before agreeing to participate in the study.

Refers to the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of the study or procedure.

Ensures that, at the end of the experiments, the patient leaves understanding the experimental aim, results, and conclusions. Debriefing must be conducted at the end of every study.

Ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

Refers to the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty.