Psych Year 12

-Aim to be objective

-Utilize and produce empirical evidence (information obtained through direct and systematic observation and experimentation)

-Are formed using the methods of science

-Use predictions, models and theories that are provisional (meaning updateable at a later time) and verifiable to explain reality

-Non-objective

-Unempirical

-Imprecise or vague

-Dogmatic (Not open to questioning)

-Unverifiable

Stories based on personal experience

The view or perspective of someone, not necessarily based on evidence

A proposition or a set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about cause and effect.

A representation of a concept, a process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand.

A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.

A testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation.

The group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

The variable in an experiment for which quantities are manipulated (controlled, selected, or changed) by the researcher.

• The variable the researcher measures in an experiment
• for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable

• Variables other than the IV that a researcher holds
• constant (controls) in an investigation, to ensure the changes in the DV are solely due to changes in the IV

• A controlled experiment is a type of investigation
• which measures the causal relationship between one or more independent variables, and a dependent variable, whilst controlling for all other variables.

• Advantages: allows for the researcher to determine
• whether a hypothesized causal relationship exists between the IV and the DV.

Disadvantages: an extraneous variable (EV) may affect the DV and influence the results in an unwanted way.

• An in depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behavior, event or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that could be encountered in the real world.
• Advantages: the data is rich and highly detailed.

• Disadvantages: the information is specific to one particular case, so many of the details may be specific to that single case and may not apply to the wider population or to other situations of interest.

A type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them.

Advantages: Because no manipulation is required in a correlational study, it can be less invasive than a controlled experiment that investigates the same research question.

• Disadvantages: Many logical errors arise when evidence of a correlation is confused with causation. To identify a causal relationship, a controlled experiment is needed.

Correlation refers to the strength of a relationship between variables. Causation refers to a relationship between variables wherein a change in one variable causes a change in another. They can occur simultaneously, however correlation does not always equal causation.

Advantage: By understanding correlation and causality, it allows for policies and programs that aim to bring about the desired outcome to be better targeted.

Disadvantages: Sometimes, a strong correlation may be the result of random chance, where the variables appear to be related, but there is no true underlying relationship.

Classification is the arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets. Identification is a process of recognition of phenomena, as belonging to particular sets, or possibly being part of a new or unique set.

Advantages: it makes abnormal behavior easier to understand and assess

• Disadvantages: Two issues with classification are reliability, or how consistent diagnoses are, and validity, or whether or not the syndromes in the system are real

• Fieldwork refers to any research involving observation
• and interaction with people and environments in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory

Advantages: enables students and researchers to examine the way scientific theories interact with real life

• Disadvantages: Researchers may have to sacrifice breadth for depth, the possibility that the research will be emotionally taxing, and the fact that documenting observations can be challenging.

Refers to the process of collating and analyzing secondary data related to other people's scientific findings, and/or viewpoints, in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data.

Advantages: It allows you to gain familiarity with the current knowledge in your chosen field, as well as the boundaries and limitations of that field.

Disadvantages: Not providing new information on the subject and, depending on the subject area, include information that is out of date.

Modelling refers to the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small-or-large scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system, involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system.

Advantages: Physical models are useful for explaining, simplifying, or demonstrating complex phenomena, especially when it is impractical or unethical to have the "real" thing

Disadvantages: Behavior modelling can be harmful, such as a parent passing on a prejudiced way of dealing with others or a friend teaching a child to use drugs.

Refers broadly to the design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge or procedures.

Advantages: These processes can lead companies to release superior quality products due to the extensive research into what the target consumers want.

Disadvantages: These processes often requires tooling, components, or manufacturing capacity that can take months to acquire.

Simulation refers to the process of using a model to study the behavior of a real or theoretical system.

Advantages: Simulations are useful for understanding how different variables operate in a system.

Disadvantages: It's a time consuming and expensive process, so it should not be used if an analytical method can provide quicker results.

Refers to the group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable.

Refers to the group of participants in an experiment who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order to serve as a base line for comparison.

An experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.

Advantages: Less people are needed because each participant completes each experimental condition.

Disadvantage: It can produce order effects

An experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition.

Advantages: Less time consuming, and does not create order effects.

Disadvantages: Differences between participants across groups can affect results.

An experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs.                                                                                                                              Advantages: Allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to a baseline control group.

Disadvantages: It is demanding for researchers and assistants to be across multiple methods.

A method of fieldwork in which a researcher watches and listens to the participants of a study, with no direct intervention and involvement, or manipulation of variables.

Involve a researcher asking questions to gather in-depth information about a particular topic, theme, or idea.

A set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer digitally or with pen and paper.

Running focus groups is a qualitative research method which involves a researcher conducting a discussion with a small group of people on a specific topic.

In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders culture, a yarning circle is a traditional approach to group discussion which involves talking, exchanging ideas, reflection and deep, considered listening without judgement.

The population of an experiment refers to the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

Refers to a subset of the research population who participate in a study.

The ability for a sample's result to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population.

The way a sample is selected from the population for a study.

Any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach.

Advantages: The most time-effective, and can be cost-effective

Disadvantages: The most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, thereby making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

Any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected.

Advantages: It can make a fairly representative sample if the sample is large

Disadvantages: It may be time-consuming to ensure every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample

Refers to any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata are proportionately represented in the sample

Advantages: The most likely to produce a representative sample.

Disadvantages: It can be time consuming and expensive.

Refers to the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups.

Ensures every sample participant has an equal chance of being allocated to any group within the experiment.

Any variable that is not the independent variable, but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable

A variable that has directly and systematically affected the dependent variable, apart from the independent variable

• Also known as "Individual participant differences" or "Subject
• variables", they refer to characteristics of a study's participants that may affect the results.

Refers to the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour.

Refers to when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs. For example, if someone is given a pill and told that if they take it before going to sleep, it will give them an energy boost, and if the following day this person wakes up and feels energized even if the pill has no real effect, they are experiencing the placebo effect.

Also known as "Experimenter bias", it refers to when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment.

• Refers to any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable. Examples are temperature, lighting, weather, and time of the day. When this affects the dependent variable in an unwanted way, they become extraneous and/or
• confounding variables.

Occur when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions.

If a study has a large sample, the findings from that study are more likely to be unbiased, compared to a small sample which may lack diversity, and therefore be biased.

A method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way. For example, splitting the participants in half, with one half completing one experimental condition first, followed by a second condition, while the other half of the participants complete the conditions in reverse order.

An inactive substance or treatment, such as a sugar pill. The purpose of providing placebos is to compare the results of participants given an active intervention, with those who are in the controlled placebo group.

A procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to. For example, not knowing if they are receiving a placebo or the active medication.

A procedure in which both the participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to

Ensuring that each participant in an experiment receives the exact same instructions and follows the same procedures to allow researchers to infer that the results are due to the independent variable.

Refers to data collected first-hand by a researcher, in a variety of ways, such as through experimentation, observation, or survey.

Refers to data sourced from others' prior research, not collected directly by the current researcher, obtained from processes like accessing data from public databases, or collected by other researchers.

Data that is expressed numerically, such as test scores, or measurements of weight. It may be collected by a survey's rating scales or multiple choice questions.

Data that is expressed non-numerically, for example verbal description of a feeling. It may be collected through open ended questionnaires and interviews.

Factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion. It is collected using measurement tools so that the same results are obtained by different researchers.

Data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation. It is usually combined with and supported by other objective data that is verifiable.

Statistics that summarize, organize, and describe data. They process quantitative data in its raw form.

Calculated by multiplying the ratio of a total by 100.

• 1. Find the total amount of something you want to know.                                          2. Divide the given number/score/mark by the total in step one.                           3. Multiply that results by 100.

Are descriptive statistics that summarize a data set by describing the center of the distribution of the data set with a single value. There are 3 measures of central tendency that you should know: Mean, Median, and Mode.

A measure of central tendency that described the numerical average of a data set. It is calculated by adding up the total and dividing it by the number of data values in the data set.

A measure of central tendency that is the middle value in a data set ordered from lowest to highest. If there are two central numbers, they are added together and divided by two.

A measure of central tendency that is the most frequently occurring value in a data set. It helps researchers understand the center of the data set when the mean or the median cannot be calculated.

Are values that differ significantly from other values in a data set, as they make the mean a less accurate summary of the average data value.

Are statistics that summarize and describe the spread and distribution of a data set. There are two that you should know: Range, and standard deviation.

A measure of variability that is a value obtained by subtracting the lowest value in a data set from the highest value.

A measure of variability expressed as a value that describes the spread of data around the mean, showing how much data "deviates" from the mean. The higher this value, the greater the data values in the set differ from the mean.

Refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

Refers to the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other.

• Errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount. For example, systematic errors from a scale are readings that are consistently 100 grams lighter than the objects weight. They may occur due to environmental factors,
• observational/researcher error, or incorrect instrument calibration.

• Errors in data that are unsystematic, and occur due to chance. They may occur due to poorly controlled or varying measurement procedures, faulty tools, variation in
• measurement context. They may be reduced by repeating, calibrating, refining, controlling extraneous variables, or increasing the sample size.

Refers to the lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to potential sources of variation in knowledge

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out during identical conditions within a short period of time.

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions.

The extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to.

The extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings, like different time, or different environments

A statement that summarizes the findings of a study, including whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected.

Refer to the broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practicing psychology, or when analyzing a psychological issue or debate.

The ethical concept that refers to a commitment to maximizing benefits and minimizing risks and harms when taking a course of action.

The ethical concept to commit to searching for knowledge and understanding, honestly reporting sources of information and results, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge

The ethical concept of the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

The ethical concept that refers to the principle of avoiding causing harm.

The ethical concept of consideration of the extent to which living things have value, giving due regard to the welfare, liberty, autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, individual and collective cultural heritage, consideration of decisions or empowering those that are not able to make their own decisions.

Include the procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected.

The ethical guideline that refers to the privacy, protection and security of participants' personal information, and anonymity of individual results.

Ethical guidelines that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks

• The ethical guideline that refers to the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure. It is only permissible when participants' knowledge of the true purpose of the experiment
• may affect their behavior and the results.

The ethical guideline that ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results, and conclusion.

An ethical guideline that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely chose to be involved.

An ethical guideline that refers to the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty.

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for transmitting neural messages to and from the peripheral nervous system

Contains all the neurons outside the central nervous system responsible for carrying information to and from the central nervous system

Is responsible for organising, interpreting, and coordinating actions, thoughts, and behaviours

Connects the brain to the peripheral nervous system. Carries motor information from the brain and sensory information from the body

• -A division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates visceral muscles (non skeletal), organs, and glands, and transmits neural messages to the central nervous system about the nervous system about their activity
• -It is involved with automatic unconscious responses, and is divided into three sections; The sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous system.

• -A branch of the ANS responsible for activating the body's visceral organs, muscles and glands to trigger a fight-flight-freeze response.
• -This response prepares the body for dealing with high levels of activity such as an exercise or to confront a threat or stressful situation

• -Branch of the ANS responsible for returning and maintaining the body's visceral muscles, organs, and glands at optimal and balanced functioning
• -This balanced level of functioning is also known as homeostasis

A division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits neural messages related to voluntary motor movement

The third and largest part of the autonomic nervous system

• -It receives and sends messages to the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system and is responsible for controlling the many functions of the digestive system.
• -Due to its connection to the peripheral nervous system via the vagus nerve there is bi-directional communication with the CNS
• -The bi-directional neural connections between the ENS and CNS are called the gut-brain axis

Functions include:

• -Controlling movement of food through the digestive system
• -Regulating secretion of digestive enzymes

A form of stress characterized by a positive psychological state.

For example getting a school leadership position and feeling happy about it but also stressed.

Eustress involves positive emotions such as feeling inspired and motivated and tends to occur when the stressor provides a positive opportunity or circumstance for the individual.

Distress is a form of stress characterized by a negative psychological stress.

It often occurs when a stressor presents an individual with an undesirable circumstance that appears to lead only to a negative outcome.

An example is finding out about a bad disease.

A stimulus from within a person's body that prompts the stress response.

Example: biological (related to physical wellbeing such as illness, pain, nutritional health or sleep), psychological (stress inducing thoughts or behaviors such as feelings of worry and anxiety, negative self talk, feeling of fear or rumination)

A stimulus from outside of a person's body that prompts the stress response.

These are often outside of our control.

Examples: a test or exam, meeting new people, working long hours, financial difficulties

A form of stress characterized by intense psychological and physiological symptoms that are brief in duration.

It presents an immediate threat to an organism's safety and can be intense but not long-lasting. Usually it does not have enough time to damage us psychologically or physically.

If we are repeatedly exposed to the same stressor, or repeatedly exposed to many different stressors over an extended period of time, acute stress may develop into chronic stress.

Fligh-fight-freeze response is a common response during acute stress.

A form of stress that is persistent or long-term. It does not demand an immediate response, and cortisol is released.