DNA replication and more love

• - it begins at the replication origins which is usually in eukaryotes. 
• - helicase is the enzyme that breaks up the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. That results in the formation of a replication bubble that keeps unraveling into a replication fork. 
• - then this unzipped DNA is now held  apart with the help of single strand binding proteins ( ssBs)   

• - primer is the short RNA that is used as a  starting point for the placements of DNA polymerase 3. 
• - DNA polymerase 3 replaces the primer  and begins adding nucleotides of info to complementary existing DNA strand that results in elongation. 
• - primer is made from the enzyme primase. 
• - DNA polymerase 1 proof reads strands 
• - this takes places from 5th prime to 3rd prime. ( leading strand  to lagging strand) 
• - Okazaki fragments that from on the lagging string due to the primer moving in the opposite directions need to be filled with the parts of the strings that have info with the help of DNA ligase

• - after Okazaki fragments are joined by DNA  ligase the dna rewinds up to from of the double helix shape
• - Enzymes , primase =, polymerase, helicase, ligase are termed the replication machine.

• - helicase - cuts dan hydrogen bonds 
• - primase - ADDS RNA primer to replication origins 
• - polymerase - adds nucleotides and proof reads 
• - ligase - joins the okazaki fragments

• - leaves the nucleus
• - sugar backbone is ribose
• - Has Uracil instead of thymine 
• - can be tRNA, Mrna , RRNA
• - 3 base code for  an amino acid ( triple coding = codon)

• - protective caps that prevent the shortening of DNA molecules and postpone the erosion of needed genes near the ends of DNA molecules. 
• - Sacrificial end pieces

• - the backbone is phosphate and deoxyribose  sugar 
• - made up of 4 nitrogenous bases which are adenine, cytosine, thymine, guanine. 
• - AT = 2 bonds, CG = 3 bonds 
• - nucleotide = one deoxyribose with its phosphate and base.

- produced a structural model of DNA which is the double helix which is a twisted ladder

• - used nitrogen as the istone 
• - supported the semiconservative model experiment ( there is old DNA with new dna) 
• -

• - stated that adenine and thymine are the exact same amount. 
• - Guanine and Cytosine  have the exact same amount.

• - Took pictures of DNA or the double helix using x rays 
• - mixed with water to find nitrogenous bases were on the inside and phosphate and sugar was outside.

• - Genome make up all the DNA in a cell
• - Genes produce a polypeptide ( protein) made of various amino acids

• - Transscription
• - Translation

• - splitting DNA  and making a copy of MRNA. 
• - basically RNA polymerase splits up Dna on the promoter region of the sense strand ( which is literally the side that will be copied, the 5. Prime end to the 3 prime end)
• - Then the MRNA nucleotides find their pairs using the the RNA polymerase complex binding them together moving in the 5  prime end to 3 prime end directions. 
• - Then when we reach a stop signal the transcription stops and the single strand MRNA move to ribosomes pair out to the cytoplasm

• - These are proteins that are made by TRNA brining amino acids as described by the MRNA. 
• - the mRNA moves to the ribosomes which are two sub units. 
• - the ribosomes activate with the help of the start code AUG which goes through 3 active sites on the ribosome. They are E, P, A. 
• - the tRNA brings specific anti code for the mRNA while passing through the ribosome. 
• - then to stop the chain we use a terminator codon

• - this only happen is Eukaryotes. 
• - this is basically when the introns are removed from the mRNA cuz they are long codes of nucleotides that do not code for anything. And they are removed by RNA splicosomes 
• - Poly A tail- prevents the mRNA from degrading

• - they are three bases that code for one amino acid on MRNA. 
• - they are universal 
•  - and can be redundant 
• -

• - they are permanent, inheritable changes in the genetic material. 
• - they are mostly harmful 
• -messed up cells = cancer 
• - somatic cells = changes in the body( not inherited)  eg. lung cancer
• - Germ line mutations - these are given to your children cuz they are sex cells.

• - Frameshift 
• - Point 
• - Mis - sense mutation 
• - Non- sense mutation 
• - silent mutation

• - the mutations does not affect the protein at all even though it is present in the DNA sequence.
• -

- This is when the RNA sequence produces a stop codon. Resulting in half the protein being cut off

- This is a mutation that changes the resulting protein.

- This is when we add or remove more than 1 nitrogenous base resulting in the sequence growing bigger or shrinking

- This is when we substitute one nucleotide for another in the DNA sequence

• - Nitrites 
• - gas fumes 
• - smokes

• - x rays, gamma rays, UV radiation 
• - basically energy

- This is when we trace mutations in the mitochondrial DNA to show relationships

• Step 1 = Cut out the donor gene for insulin with the restriction enzymes leaving the sticky ends.
• step 2. = Cut the plasmid with the same restriction enzymes and similar sticky ends. 
• step 3 = We use DNA Ligase to join the donor gene  into the plasmid ( join the sticky ends ) 
• step 4 = The Transgenic bacteria produces Insulin and we “ harvest it “

• - genetic information of one organism is spliced from one organism into a chromosome of another. 
• - Resulting in two organisms that could never exchange genetic information to become joined

• - Agricultural ( making crops resistant to weather conditions and increase nutrition values
• -  Medical ( creates medicine)
• - Legal ( crime finding finger prints )

Vectors

- is the alteration of an afflicted individuals genes

• -  This is used to produce multiple copies of DNA  for specific segments. 
• - DNA is separated by heat, then we bring in the primers that serve a red flag for were dna polymerase should begin adding nucleotides

• - using gel and electricity to separate DNA fragments to create a DNA Pieces sequence ( fingerprint) 
•  - Shorter or smaller segments will be pushed to the bottom of the box because they are smaller and easily pushed by the negative charge while the big segments will remain close to the top