U2 AOS1 Ch7: Social Cognition

Discomforr experienced when our behaviours do not align with our attitudes or perception of ourselves

Subconscious systematic errors (consistent mistakes) that occur in our decision-making.

Tendency to rely on the first piece of information offered when making decisions

Tendency to focus on particular stimuli while overlooking or ignoring other relevant pieces of information

When a person focuses on and favours information that supports them while ignoring contradictory information or views

Tendency for people to assume that their attitudes, beliefs and behaviours are relatively common and are more widely shared by other than is the case

When the positive evaluation we hold about one quality of a person influences our beliefs and expectations regarding other qualities of that person

When a person believes an outcome to have been more predictable than they did before it occurred

Occurs when a person demonstrates poor recall of events following exposure to additional information after the event took place

Our inclination to overestimate out likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate our likelihood of experiencing negative events

A tendency for a person to attribute a positive outcome to internal (dispositional) factors, yet attribute negative outcomes to external (situational) factors

Occurs when people with low ability at a task overestimate their own skill set, and people with high ability at a task underestimate their own skill set.

Refers to cognitions involved in the way that we behave in social settings and how we interpret the behaviours of others

The process by which people think about, appraise and evaluate other people

The cognitive process of attaching meaning to behaviour by looking for a cause or causes to explain the behaviour

• Refers to factors within the person that shape their behaviour 
• eg. personality characteristics, motivation, ability and effort

• Refers to environmental factors that are external to the individual
• eg. their location or the people around them

We tend to overestimate the role of internal factors and underestimate the role of external factors

Learned ideas we hold about ourselves, others, objects and experiences. Attitudes are not innate

Proposes that attitudes contain 3 main components (ABC of attitude)

• Affective component: feeling or emotions towards the object or person
• Behavioural component: the actions towards various people, objects or institutions
• Cognitive component: the belief about an object or person

• Does not in indicate the strength of an attitude. Understanding the strength of an attitude is useful as strong attitudes are generally firmly held, resistant to change and impact behaviour.
• Inconsistencies often exist between what a person thinks and feels and their behaviour (cognitive dissonance)

○E.g. an individual might hold negative views about a particular religious group but not express them in daily interactions with individuals from that group.

Generalised views about the personal attributes or characteristics of a group of people

• Places people in categories based on their shared characteristic and their membership to a particular group
• eg. gender, age, ethnicity and occupation

Mental shortcuts we use to make quicker, more efficient decisions

A mental shortcut in which we use the information that we first think of to make a judgement

A mental shortcut in decision-making where we estimate the likelihood of something occurring or being true based on its similarity to our existing understanding and expectations

When decision making is influenced by an individual's current emotional state or mood

A negative preconceived notion that we hold towards individuals due to their membership to a particular group

Treating others in an unfair manner based on the negative attitude held about that person or the group to which they belong

When a person or a group is treated less favorably than another person or group because of their background or certain personal characteristics

An unreasonable rule or policy that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on a particular group

• Frequent experiences of prejudice and discrimination leads to increased psychological distress, significantly worse mental health outcomes and increased risk of mental health conditions (namely depression and anxiety).
• First Nations males reported more severe depressive symptoms than non-First Nations respondents – and, worryingly, significantly higher rates of suicidal ideation.

When intergroup contact is increased between the people who hold the stereotype and those who are the target of the stereotype, prejudice is reduced. 

- this occurs when contact is sustained, equality exists and when meeting the goals requires mutual interdependence

For maximum benefit, intergroup contact should be prolonged and involve cooperative activity

shared goals, which individuals cannot achieve without the cooperation of others

-helps reduce conflict by encouraging people in opposing groups to see themselves as members of a single, larger group

when individuals must rely on one another to meet each person's goals, prejudice and discrimination is reduced

involves social interaction that occurs at the same level, without obvious differences in power or status. Members of the in-group and outgroup interact with each other, but without one group exerting power over the other

Social norms are rules, standards or behaviours that are generally understand or accepted within society. 

- norms can be changed through the passing of legislation, awareness campaigns and spending time with out-groups

• A group is formed when:
• ⚬two or more people interact
• ⚬influence each other
• ⚬share a common objective.
• Most people belong to several groups which range from structured, permanent groups, (e.g. sporting teams) to fluid, temporary groups (e.g. study groups).
• Within groups, members differ in their status and social power.

refers to a person's position in the hierarchy of a group

Refers to the amount of influence that an individual can exert over another person. The higher a person's status, the more power they exert.

based on the ability to reward a person who complies with the desired behaviour

eg. teachers reward students with results

based on the ability to punish a person for failure to comply

eg. fines and imprisonment are used to control behaviour

based on our acceptance of a person as being part of an established social order

eg. elected leaders, teachers in a classroom, parents at home

we refer to the person for direction. we want to be like the person

eg. celebrities, sporting heroes

we recognise a person has knowledge or expertise in a specific field because of their training and experience

eg. doctors, lawyers, computer technicians

• - value group needs or interests over the interests of individuals
• - prioritise loyalty to the group, as well as interdependence, and understanding your role within the group
• - emphasise conformity, obedience and security

• - value individual interests over the interests of groups
• - view people as independent and accept that individuals' actions are focused on the attainment of their goals and the meeting of their need over ant broad group goals
• - promote the interests of the individual and encourage the development of independence and personal identity

Obedience occurs when people change their behaviour in response to direct commands from others.

Greater status or power of authority increases the extent of obedience.

how- individuals are more likely to obey the commands of those they perceive to have status of power

Greater physical proximity (physical closeness) or greater relationship proximity (emotional closeness) between an individual and someone who made a command increases the likelihood of obedience

how- individuals are more likely to obey the commands of those to whom they are physically close

Tendency to obey increases as the number of 'others' who also obey increases

how- individuals are more likely to obey commands when they obserces others obeying the commands