-
Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor applied the scientific method to study job productivity. It involves:
1. scientifically analyzing jobs into the component parts and then standardizing those parts
2. scientifically selecting, training, and placing workers on jobs for which they are mentally and physically suited
3. fostering cooperation between supervisors and workers to minimize deviation from scientific methods of work
4. having managers and workers assume responsibility for their own share of the work
Argued that money is the most effective motivator and advocated for a piece-rate system that pays more to those who exceed the standard level of performance
-
Human Relations Movement
Placed greater emphasis on worker needs, motives, and relationships.
Mayo's (Hawthorn Studies) "relay room" experiments found that productivity increased based on novelty of the experimental situation, the worker's interest, and special attention received.
Informal work group norms significantly impact worker productivity.
-
Human Relations Movement - Hawthorne Effect
The improvement in job performance resulting from psychological and social factors related to participation in a research study.
-
Theory X and Theory Y Managers
Theory X managers - believe that employees dislike work and avoid it whenever possible and, as a result, must be directed and controlled
Theory Y managers - view work as being "as natural as play" and assume that employees are capable of self-control and self-direction
Theory Y us more likely to have positive effects on employees and organizations
-
An early approach to management theory was Taylor's notion of ________, which emphasizes breaking jobs into component parts, having each employee perform a single component, and relying on _________ to motivate employees. In contrast, the __________ approach acknowledges the impact of social relationships on productivity and morale, especially the role of __________ norm. The Hawthorne studies, a major contributor to this approach, found that employees performed better during the course of the research because of the attention they received as __________
scientific management
economic rewards (pay)
Human relations
informal work group
research participants
-
McGregor distinguished between Theory X and Theory Y managers and proposed that a _______ approach is most effective because it adopts a more positive view of workers and assumes they are capable of self-__________
Theory Y
control and direction
-
Motivation definition
the physical and mental energy that a person exerts to achieve a goal.
-
Performance equation
Performance = f(ability + motivation + Environment)
-
Need-Hierarchy Theory (Maslow)
proposes that motivation is the result of five basic instinctual needs: physiological, safety, social (belongingness and love), esteem, and self-actualization.
The five needs are arranged in a hierarchy so that each need acts as a motivator (i.e., is "prepotent") only when lower-order needs have been satisfied. With the exception of self-actualization (which is never completely satiated), a need no longer serves as a motivator once it has been satisfied.
Mixed evidence to support this theory except for unfulfilled physiological needs.
-
ERG Theory, Alderfer (1972)
Developed this theory as an alternative to Maslow's approach and reduced the five needs to three: existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG).
He also proposed that people may be motivated by more than one need at a time, that the activation of needs does not always progress from lower to higher level needs, and that people may regress to a lower level when a need is frustrated.
Has generally received more empirical support than the need-hierarchy theory (Maslow)
-
Need Theory, McClelland (1965)
used the thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to identify needs that underlie job motivation. Result suggest that basic needs are culturally determined and three needs often act as motivators:
Need for achievement - the need to surpass standards of excellence and to advance and grow. High need for achievement = goal and task oriented
Need for power - the need to control or influence others. 2 types - socialized power (used to benefit others) and personalized power (used to benefit oneself) and proposed that effective leaders have a high need for socialized power.
Need for affiliation - the need to establish warm and close relationships with other people. High need for affiliation work best in teams and in jobs that require them to relate well with others.
-
Two-Factor Theory, Herzberg (1966)
A theory of both satisfaction and motivation, and, in contrast, to most other theories, it describes satisfaction and dissatisfaction as independent attitudes. Two basic needs:
Lower level needs - have little effect on job satisfaction and motivation but produce dissatisfaction when they are unfulfilled. Factors that satisfy lower-level needs are called hygiene (job context) factors and include pay, benefits, co-worker relationships, supervision, job security, and physical work conditions.
Higher-level needs - increase job satisfaction and motivation when they are fulfilled but do not cause dissatisfaction when they are not. Factors that satisfy higher-level needs are referred to as motivator (job content) factors and include opportunities for responsibility, advancement, recognition, and achievement.
-
Two-Factor Theory, Herzberg (1966) - Job Enrichment
involves combining several jobs into a larger job so that the employee performs a meaningful unit of work and is given greater responsibility, freedom, autonomy, and control.
-
Two-Factor Theory, Herzberg (1966) - Job Enlargement
entails increasing the job's horizontal loading by increasing the number and variety of tasks. Although job enlargement can reduce boredom, it does not usually have a substantial impact on satisfaction and motivation.
-
Goal-Setting Theory, Locke and Latham (1990)
Employees are motivated to achieve goals they have consciously accepted and are, therefore, committed to. While the theory does not consider participation in goal-setting to be crucial, it does suggest that participation is necessary whenever employees are not likely to accept assigned goals.
specific goals with moderate difficulty = higher productivity
Feedback about performance is critical
-
Equity Theory, Adams (1963)
emphasizes the impact of social comparison on motivation and proposes that employees compare the ration of their own inputs (skills, experience, education, etc.) to outcomes (financial and non-financial rewards) to the input/outcome ratios of others who are performing similar jobs.
When employees believe their input/outcome ratio differs from others (underpaid) they experience a state of inequity and try to make the situation more equitable by altering the inputs and/or outcomes, rationalizing the inequity, change the comparison person, or leaving the situation.
-
Expectancy Theory
An employee will work hard if they:
1. believe that high effort will lead to successful task performance (high expectancy)
2. believe that successful performance will lead to high rewards (high instrumentality)
3. view the rewards as desirable (positive valence)
-
Social-Cognitive Theory, Bandura (1986, 1997)
emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes that it involves four processes:
1. goal setting - establish personal goals that represent a desired behavioral state, with the nature of goals being influenced by past experiences and self-efficacy beliefs.
2. self-observation - after setting goals, the person monitors goal related behaviors
3. self-evaluation - use information obtained during self-observation to compare current behaviors to behavioral goals
4. self-reaction - result in positive and negative reactions. Positive occurs when current behaviors are consistent with goals and leads to satisfaction, increase efficacy, and setting higher standards for future goals. Negative occurs when behaviors fall short of goals and causes dissatisfaction and motivates the person to increase effort, alter strategies, modify goals, or abandon the activity.
-
Maslow's theory proposes that needs are arranged in a _______ and that higher-level needs act as _________ only when lower-level needs have been satisfied. In order from lowest to highest, these needs are : ________, safety, social, _________, and self actualization
needs-hierarchy
motivators
physiological
esteem
-
For McClelland, the need for achievement is an important determinant of motivation, and people in nACH prefer ________ tasks and regard money as a source of _________.
moderate difficulty
feedback and recognition
-
Herzberg's ________ theory addresses both motivation and satisfaction. It proposes that dissatisfaction and satisfaction are independent factors and that dissatisfaction is affected by ________ factors, while satisfaction and motivation are related to the availability of _________ factors. Herzberg's theory predicts that workers will be maximally motivated if they are provided with ________ jobs, which give employees a high degree of autonomy, responsibility, and control. Job ________involves increasing a job's horizontal loading only and may help alleviate boredom but is not likely to have a significant effect on satisfaction or motivation.
two-factor
hygiene
motivator
enriched
enlargement
-
Goal-setting theory predicts that workers will be maximally motivated when they have consciously _________ work goals; when goals are specific and moderately __________; and when workers are provided with _______ about their progress towards achieving goals
accepted
difficult
feedback
-
According to equity theory, a worker's motivation and productivity are affected by comparisons between his/her _________ and those of others. In contrast, expectancy theory views motivation as a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and _________
input and outcomes (input/outcome ratio)
valence
-
Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasizes the role of _________ of behavior, which involves four processes: goal setting, self-observation, self-evaluation, and _________.
self-regulation
self reaction
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Job Satisfaction
an employees cognitive, affective, and evaluative reactions to his or her job.
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Disposition
There is evidence that job satisfaction is an enduring disposition (a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a specified way).
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Age`
Research on the relationship between overall job satisfaction and age has provided inconsistent results. Some show a positive linear relationship and others show a U-shaped relationship
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Race/Ethnicity
Studies have not produce entirely consistent results. However, in general, compared to Whites, members of racial minority groups report lower levels of overall job satisfaction, with this difference being most consistent when Blacks are compared to Whites
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Gender
Some studies have found women to report lower levels of satisfaction than men, others have found the opposite to be true or that similar levels are reported.
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Occupational Level
Satisfaction increases as occupation level increases
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Worker Characteristics - Life Satisfaction
a positive correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction; however, the nature of this relationship is unclear.
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Job Factors
Top 5: job security, opportunities to use skills and abilities, organization's financial stability, relationship with immediate supervisor, and pay.
-
Determinants of Job Satisfaction - Job Factors - Pay
Inconclusive results on the impact of pay on satisfaction. Some studies suggest pay is a key determinant, while other indicate pay is less important than interesting work, job security, interpersonal relationships, and other factors.
-
Effects of Job Satisfaction - Turnover
Job dissatisfaction has been linked to high rates of turnover, absenteeism, and tardiness. The strongest relationship is between satisfaction and turnover, with the average correlation being about -.40/
-
Organizational Commitment
the strength of an employee's psychological attachment to an organization. Three types:
1. Affective - a worker's identification with, emotional attachment to, and involvement in the organization
2. Continuance - a worker's perception regarding the social and monetary costs of leaving the organization
3. Normative - the worker's sense of obligation to remain with the organization because they believe it is the right thing to do.
Affective is the strongest
-
Job satisfaction has been linked to a number of worker characteristics. For example, Avery et al.'s (1989) study of identical twins reared apart found that _______ percent of variability in satisfaction was due to genetic factors.
30
-
Although the research on the effects of age has provided inconsistent results, in general, studies have found that a ________ relationship between these two variables.
positive linear
-
With regard to job factors, some research indicates that the ability to use one's ________ is not only related to job satisfaction but also to turnover and physical and mental health
skills and abilities
-
Studies on pay suggests that an employees __________ has a stronger impact on job satisfaction than does actual pay level.
perception of fairness and equity
-
Job satisfaction has been associated with several consequences. Reported correlations between satisfaction and performance are generally __________. However, a fairly strong inverse correlation (about -.40) has been reported for satisfaction and _________. Interestingly, Palmore found job satisfaction to be a better predictor of _______ than either physical health or tobacco use.
positive but low
turnover
longevity
-
Meyer and Allen (1997) distinguish between three types of organizational commitment. Of the three, ________ commitment has been most consistently linked to a variety of factors including turnover, absenteeism, job performance, and personal stress.
affective
-
From the perspective of Herzberg's two-factor theory, the relationship between pay and motivation is best described by which of the following?
A.Pay acts as a motivator only after safety needs have been met.
B.Pay acts as a motivator only when intrinsic motivation is low.
C.Pay acts as a motivator only for jobs that cannot be "enriched."
D.Pay does not act as a motivator.
D
Herzberg's two-factor theory proposes that all people have two basic needs - hygiene needs and motivator needs. Herzberg's two-factor theory identifies pay as a hygiene factor. Like other hygiene factors, pay leads to dissatisfaction when it is perceived to be inadequate but produces a state of neutrality when it is adequate. To increase motivation (and satisfaction), motivator factors must be provided by the job.
Answer A: Maslow's theory proposes that motivation is the result of five basic needs arranged in a hierarchy, and each need acts as a motivator only when lower-order needs have been satisfied.
Answer B: Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards, and is the act of doing something without discernible external rewards. Intrinsic motivation is not a part of Herzberg's two-factor theory.
Answer C: Herzberg proposed that providing employees with "enriched" jobs (jobs that provide opportunities to satisfy motivator needs) is the best way to increase satisfaction and motivation.
-
For an advocate of expectancy theory, "instrumentality" refers to:
A.the relationship between effort and performance.
B.the desirability of the outcomes.
C.the relationship between performance and outcomes.
D.social norms related to performance.
C
Expectancy theory links worker motivation to three factors—expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Instrumentality refers to the belief that successful performance will lead to positive outcomes (rewards).
Answer A: Expectancy refers to the relationship between effort and performance.
Answer B: Valence refers to the desirability of the outcomes (rewards).
Answer D: Expectancy theory does not include social norms related to performance.
-
Locke's goal-setting theory makes which of the following predictions about production goals?
A.General goals produce higher levels of performance than specific goals.
B.Participation in goal-setting is critical for all employees.
C.Moderately difficult goals produce higher levels of performance than very difficult goals.
D.Assigned goals are always less effective than self-set goals.
C
Goal-setting theory predicts that employees are motivated to achieve production goals when they have consciously accepted them and when certain other conditions are met. Moderately difficult goals (i.e., those with about a 50% chance of being accomplished) produce the highest levels of performance.
Answer A: Specific goals produce higher levels of performance than general goals.
Answer B: Participation in goal-setting theory is not always necessary, although it may be effective when employees are resistant to accepting assigned goals.
Answer D: Assigned goals are actually preferred by some workers (e.g., those with a low need for achievement).
-
A manager with a "Theory X" management philosophy would be most likely to say that her role as a manager:
A.is to allow employees to be self-directed.
B.is to direct and control employees in order to achieve organizational goals.
C.varies, depending on factors related to the organizational climate.
D.varies, depending on the likelihood that employees will resist changes in policies and procedures.
- B
- For the exam, you want to be familiar with the distinction between McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y managers. As defined by McGregor, a Theory X manager believes that employees don't like to work and must be closely supervised and provided with incentives for good performance.
Answer A: A Theory Y manager believes that work is "as natural as play" and assumes that employees are capable of self-control and self-direction.
Answer C: Factors related to organizational climate are a concern for conflict resolution.
Answer D: The likelihood that employees will resist changes in policies and procedures may be addressed by strategies for overcoming resistance to change.
-
Research on goal-setting theory has found that, when workers participate in setting their own performance goals, the goals tend to be __________ goals set by the supervisor alone.
A.easier than
B.similar to
C.more difficult than
D.qualitatively different from
C
Contrary to what might be expected, research on goal-setting theory has found that workers tend to set more difficult goals for themselves than their supervisors would set for them.
-
Many of the employees working on the assembly line at a large auto manufacturing plant have very low levels of job motivation and satisfaction. Their new supervisor, who is familiar with Herzberg's work, is most likely to recommend that:
A.each employee's prepotent needs to be identified.
B.each employee's level of job maturity needs to be identified.
C.all employees be given bonuses that are clearly linked to job performance.
D.all employees be given more individual responsibility and autonomy.
D
Herzberg's two-factor theory distinguishes between hygiene (job context) factors and motivator (job content) factors and predicts that these factors have different effects on job motivation and satisfaction. According to Herzberg, only motivator factors increase motivation and satisfaction, and motivator factors include opportunities for responsibility, autonomy, advancement, recognition, and achievement.
Answer A: A prepotent need is defined by Maslow's (1954) need-hierarchy theory. Maslow's theory proposes that motivation is the result of five basic needs arranged in a hierarchy, and each need acts as a motivator (i.e., is "prepotent") only when lower-order needs have been satisfied.
Answer B: Hersey and Blanchard's (1974) situational leadership model distinguishes between four leadership styles and proposes that the appropriate style depends on the subordinate's job maturity, which is a combination of ability and willingness to accept responsibility.
Answer C: Transactional leaders rely on rewards and punishments and appeal to the self-interest of employees to motivation them; they are more likely to link monetary incentives to job performance.
-
A colleague tells you that she is designing a study to determine the correlates of job satisfaction. Based on your knowledge of the existing research on this issue, you tell her that job satisfaction has the strongest correlation with:
A.productivity.
B.turnover.
C.absenteeism.
D.performance.
B
Research has found that the largest correlation is for job satisfaction and turnover, with the average reported coefficient being -.40 (Locke, 1976). In contrast, the average reported correlation between job satisfaction and job performance is only .14 (Vroom, 1964).
|
|
