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Job Analysis
A systematic method for collecting the information needed to describe job requirements.
Results can serve as the basis for developing criterion measures and also provide information that facilitates recruitment, selection, workforce planning, training program design, and performance management
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Job Analysis - Methods of Job Analysis
observe employees perform the job
interviews with employees, supervisors, and other familiar with the job
reviewing company records
have employees keep a job diary
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Job Analysis - Methods of Job Analysis - Job Oriented Methods
provide information about the characteristics of the tasks that are performed on the job
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Job Analysis - Methods of Job Analysis - Worker-Oriented Methods
Provide information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAO) that a worker needs to perform the job successfully.
More useful for designing training programs and deriving criterion measures that provide useful employee feedback.
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Job Analysis - Methods of Job Analysis - Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
Is completed by the job holder, the supervisor, or a job analyst and provides quantitative information on six dimensions of worker activity.
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Job Analysis - Job Analysis versus Job Evaluation
Job analysis - conducted to clarify the requirements of a job.
Job evaluation - performed to determine the relative worth of jobs in order to set salaries and wages and emphasize identifying compensable factors such as skills and education required, degree of autonomy and responsibility, and consequences of errors.
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Job Analysis - Job Analysis versus Job Evaluation - Comparable Worth
Ensure that people who are performing work of comparable value receive comparable pay.
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Criterion Measures
Measure to assess employee performance
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Criterion Measures - Types of Criterion Measures - Objective
Objective (direct) - include quantitative measure of productions such as units produced, sold, or rejected, and certain types of personnel data including accidents, absenteeism, tardiness, and salary and promotion history
Often inadequate as they may be biased by situational factors such as differences in equipment, territory, or supplies
Many important aspects of job effectiveness (cooperation with coworkers, job motivation, etc.) cannot be assessed with objective measures.
Subjective
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Criterion Measures - Types of Criterion Measures - Subjective
The most frequently used performance assessment techniques in organizations and usually take the form of ratings that reflect the judgment of the rater (supervisor evaluations, etc.).
self-ratings tend to be most lenient but are less susceptible to the halo bias
supervisor ratings are generally the most reliable
Peer ratings are particularly good for predicting training success and subsequent promotions
subordinate, peer, and supervisor rating usually agree more with each other than with self-ratings.
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Criterion Measures - Characteristics of Criterion Measures - Ultimate vs. Actual Criterion
The Ultimate criterion is AKA the conceptual or theoretical criterion and refers to an accurate and complete measure of performance
Actual criterion is the way that performance is actually measured
Ex: For a psychotherapist, an UC might be "provides effective therapeutic services," and the AC might be a client survey of satisfaction with therapy.
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Criterion Measures - Characteristics of Criterion Measures - Relevance
Refers to the actual criterion's construct validity (the degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion
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Criterion Measures - Characteristics of Criterion Measures - Deficiency
refers to the degree to which an actual criterion does not measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion and is one of the factors that limits criterion relevance
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Criterion Measures - Characteristics of Criterion Measures - Contamination
another factor that limits relevance and occurs when an actual criterion assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure
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Criterion Measures - Subjective Criterion Measures - Relative (comparative) Techniques
require the rater to compare the performance of two or m0ore employees to each other
Advantage - can help alleviate rater biases
Negative - they force the rater to place some ratees at high or lower performance levels even if all employees are performing at about the same level; prohibited by law for most federal jobs; raters and ratees often dislike them; less useful
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Criterion Measures - Subjective Criterion Measures - Absolute Techniques
Provide information on a ratee's performance without reference or comparison to other employees.
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Criterion Measures - Rating Techniques - Paired Comparison
the rater compares each ratee with every oter ratee on one or more dimensions.
because increasingly cumbersome to use as the number of ratees increases.
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Criterion Measures - Rating Techniques - Forced Distribution
Similar to grading on the curve and involves assigning ratees to a limited number of categories based on predefined normal distribution on one ore more dimensions of job performance
May yield erroneous data if the performance of ratees is not actually normally distributed
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Criterion Measures - Rating Techniques - Critical Incident Technique
Involves first deriving a checklist of critical incidents by having the supervisor observe employees while they work
The performance appraisal by marking checklist items that apply to the ratee
Provides useful employee feedback but requires close supervision and accurate recordkeeping
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Criterion Measures - Rating Techniques - Forced-Choice Rating Scale
consists of 2 - 4 alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee
reduces rater biases but are time consuming of disliked by raters
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Criterion Measures - Rating Techniques - Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
Supervisors or other familiar with the job
1. identify independent dimensions of job behavior (job knowledge, motivation, interpersonal relationships)
2. identify several behavioral anchors (critical incidents) for each dimension
3. order and number the behavioral anchors within each dimension that best describes the employee
can easily be used to provide specific feedback and increases inter-rater reliability and reduces rater biases, but timely to develop the scale
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Criterion Measures - Rater Biases - Leniency/Strictness Bias
When a rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale and rates either high or low on all dimensions
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Criterion Measures - Rater Biases - Central Tendency Bias
A rater's consistent use of only the middle range of a scale
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Criterion Measures - Rater Biases - Halo Bias
A rater evaluation of an employee on one dimension of job performance affects his/her evaluation on other unrelated dimensions or when the rater's general impression of an employee influences how the rater rates the employee on all dimensions.
can be positive or negative
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Criterion Measures - Rater Biases - Frame of Reference (FOR) Training
Provides raters with a common understanding of the multidimensional nature of job performance and of what constitutes effective and ineffective performance on each dimension
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The development of performance assessment techniques usually begins with a ________, which is a systematic method for collecting the information needed to develop a job description and appropriate. This technique should not be confused with a job _______, which is conducted specifically to set wages and salaries and is often used to establish _______ worth.
analysis
criterion
evaluation
comparable
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_________ criterion measures include direct measures of production and employee data. Subjective criterion measures often take the form of _________, which are most often completed by ________. Criterion ________ refers to the extent to which a criterion measures actually measures the ultimate criterion. Criterion ___________ occurs when a rater's knowledge of a ratee's performance on the predictor affects how the rater evaluated the ratee on the criterion
Objective
rating scales
the employee's supervisor
relevance
contamination
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Relative techniques include the ________ technique, which is time-consuming when there are many employees to rate, and the ________ technique, which resembles grading on the curve.
Paired comparison
forced distribution
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Absolute techniques include the __________ technique, entails creating a checklist that consists of specific behaviors associated with successful and unsuccessful job performance, and BARS, a type of graphic rating scale that attempts to reduce rater biases by anchoring points on the scale with ________.
critical incident
behavioral anchors (critical incidents)
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Unfortunately, rating scales are susceptible to a number of rater biases. The _______bias occurs when a rater tends to use the mid-range of the rating scale for all ratees, while the ________ occurs when a rater's rating of an employee on one dimensions of performance affects how the rater rates the employee on all other dimensions.
central tendency
halo bias
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Rater biases can be alleviated through rater training and incorporating critical incidents into the rating scale. With regard to the former, ________ training is particularly effective because it provides raters with a common conception of what constitutes effective and ineffective job performance
frame of reference
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In the context of performance assessment, "critical incidents" are best described as:
A.factors that contribute to rater biases.
B.behaviors that increase the risk for accidents and/or errors.
C.behaviors that clearly contribute to successful and unsuccessful job performance.
D.compensatory behaviors that are used to establish wages and salaries.
C
Critical incidents are descriptions of specific job behaviors that define successful and unsuccessful job performance. When used in performance appraisal instruments, critical incidents are the "anchors" in a graphic rating scale or the statements included in a checklist.
Answer A: Factors that contribute to rater biases include the leniency/strictness bias, the central tendency bias, and the halo bias.
Answer B: Physical and mental fatigue contribute to increased accident rates and errors.
Answer D: The compensatory factors identified during the course of a job evaluation may include critical incidents but are not limited to them.
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A supervisor's ratings are affected by a "halo bias." This means that the supervisor rates:
A.all employees identical to the way she rates the first employee.
B.all employees on the basis of their physical attractiveness.
C.each employee's overall level of performance based on the rating of one dimension of performance.
D.each employee very high on all dimensions of job performance.
C
The halo bias (effect) occurs when a rater's rating of an individual on one dimension of performance influences how the rater rates the individual on other unrelated dimensions. This can either raise (positive halo) or lower (negative halo) the overall performance rating.
Answer A: If a rater rates all employees identical to how she rates the first employee, she may be demonstrating an undetermined type of rater bias. However, this does not describe the halo bias.
Answer B: Although physical attractiveness could be the characteristic that creates a halo effect, it is not the only characteristic that could do so. Therefore, this is not the best answer.
Answer D: The leniency bias occurs when a rater rates all employees as high on all dimensions of job performance.
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Frame-of-reference training is used to:
A.improve the ability of raters to assign accurate performance ratings to employees.
B.improve the ability of employers to make accurate selection decisions.
C.help employers make decisions about comparable worth.
D.help managers adapt their leadership style to a subordinate's job maturity.
A
Frame-of-reference (FOR) training is a type of rater training that is used to increase rater accuracy by helping raters recognize what constitutes effective and ineffective job performance.
Answer B: To improve accurate selection decisions, checking the incremental validity of the predictor being used to make the selection decision is recommended.
Answer C: Job evaluation techniques are often used to establish comparable worth—i.e., to ensure that people who are performing work of comparable value receive comparable pay.
Answer D: Hersey and Blanchard's (1974) situational leadership model proposes that the appropriate leadership style depends on the subordinate's job maturity, which is determined by a combination of ability and willingness to accept responsibility.
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When using the Critical Incident Technique, critical incidents are ordinarily identified by:
A.the supervisor who observes an employee while he/she works.
B.an employee who maintains a detailed job diary.
C.a job analyst who administers a structured interview to supervisors.
D.a supervisor who temporarily performs the job him/herself.
A
The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is a method of performance appraisal. As originally described, the CIT involves having the supervisor observe an employee and record specific behaviors associated with effective and ineffective job performance. These behaviors (critical incidents) are then compiled into a checklist that is used to evaluate the performance of employees performing the same job.
Answer B: Critical incidents are identified by the supervisor, not the employee. Having an employee keep a job diary is a method of job analysis.
Answer C: A job analyst may administer a structured interview with supervisors as another form of job analysis.
Answer D: A supervisor who temporarily performs a job him/herself may be engaging in job rotation, a type of on-the-job training.
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"Criterion contamination" is a concern when:
A.items on the measure of performance are dichotomously scored.
B.the performance measure will be scored by more than one rater.
C.rating categories are not mutually exclusive.
D.the measure of performance is subjectively scored.
D
Subjectively scored criterion measures are susceptible to biases, including criterion contamination. Criterion contamination occurs when a rater's knowledge of a person's performance biases how he/she rates the person on the criterion. When criterion contamination occurs, the criterion may not be providing accurate information.
Answer A: When items on a measure of performance are dichotomously scored, raters may be interested in the measure's reliability coefficient. The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 can be used when items on a measure are dichotomously scored.
Answer B: Inter-rater reliability is of concern when test scores depend on a rater's judgment. Inter-rater reliability can be assessed for ratings assigned by two or more raters.
Answer C: When rating categories are not mutually exclusive, the inter-rater reliability coefficient is likely to be low.
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