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Origins of Prosocial Behavior - Evolutionary Theory
prosocial behavior is the result of kin altruism, which refers to a biological predisposition to help genetically related others even if it is sacrificial to the self that developed as a means for ensuring the survival of our genes - i.e., by helping our offspring and other genetic relatives, we increase the likelihood of their survival and ability to pass their genes to future generations.
Does not account for helping others outside of the family or strangers.
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Origins of Prosocial Behavior - Social Norms
General rules of conduct that are established by society to inform its members about what behaviors are expected. For example, the norm of reciprocity dictates that we should help others who have helped us, whereas the norm of social responsibility prescribes that we should assist others who are in need of help whether or not they have helped us in the past or are likely to do so in the future
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Types of Prosocial Behavior - Cooperation (Sherif et al., 1961 - Robber's Cave study)
kids at a camp were divided into 2 groups and tasks were designed to maximize intragroup cohesiveness and intergroup conflict. Group members quickly became very hostile to members of the opposing group.
Several strategies were used to attempt to reduce aggressive behaviors, but only the introduction of superordinate goals (both groups working together toward a common goal) was successful
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Types of Prosocial Behavior - Cooperation - Jigsaw Method
Dividing students into diverse groups and making each responsible to learn a portion of material and teach it to other group members so members are reliant upon each other to learn all of the material. Found to be effective in reducing ethnic stereotyping, increase students' attraction to members of different ethnic groups, enhance cooperation, self-esteem, and attitudes toward school.
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Types of Prosocial Behavior - Bystander Intervention
A woman was stabbed to death with 38 witnesses and not one person intervened (bystander apathy). research suggests bystanders the unwillingness of bystanders to help in an emergency is due to at least 3 factors
1. Pluralistic Ignorance - assistance is unnecessary because others are not offering assistance
2. Evaluation Apprehension - Bystanders do not help because they fear social disapproval
3. Diffusion of Responsibility - Bystanders do not accept personal responsibility for helping because they assume others will offer help.
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According to evolutionary theory, prosocial behavior can be traced to _______ which is a means for ensuring the survival of our genes. In contrast, social norm theories focus on the role of norms, such as the norm of ________, which dictates that we should help others who have helped us.
kin altruism
reciprocity
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Sherif's Robber Cave study demonstrated that cooperation between hostile groups is increased when group members work to achieve a ________ goal. This was also demonstrated by Aronson and his colleagues who applied the ________ method to a fifth grade classroom. Results of their study indicated that this method not only reduces ethnic ________ but also enhances students' self-esteem and attitudes toward school.
superordinate
jigsaw
stereotypes
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Research on bystander intervention has found that a bystander is more likely to intervene when he/she is _________, when the bystander feels a sense of _______ for the victim, and when the emergency situation is ________.
alone
responsibility
non-ambiguous
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The Social Environment - Field Theory
Proposes that every psychological event depends on the state of the person and at the same time on the environment, although their relative importance is different in different cases.
Human behavior is always a function of the person and the physical and social environment.
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The Social Environment - Field Theory - Intraindividual Conflict - Approach-Approach Conflict
occurs when we mist choose between two equally positive or attractive goals (two equally desirable jobs). Usually the easiest to resolve
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The Social Environment - Field Theory - Intraindividual Conflict - Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
occurs when we must choose between two equally negative or unattractive goals (choosing between being laid off or accepting a lower-paid job in the company). Difficult to resolve and can lead to indecision, inaction, or removing oneself from the situation.
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The Social Environment - Field Theory - Intraindividual Conflict -Approach-Avoidance Conflict
occurs when a single goal has both positive and negative qualities (deciding whether or not to accept a promotion that comes with an increase in salary but also an increase in job-related stress).
In this situation, when we move closer to the goal (accept the job), the avoidance becomes stronger; and, conversely when we move father from the goal (refuse the job), the approach force increases.
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The Social Environment - Field Theory - Intraindividual Conflict - Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict
occurs when we have to choose between two goals that both have positive and negative consequences (choosing between two graduate schools that both have pros and cons). Produces vacillation between the two alternatives and is usually the most difficult conflict to resolve.
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The Social Environment - Field Theory - Zeigarnik Effect
Proposes that memory tends to be better for uncompleted tasks than for completed tasks because uncompleted tasks create greater "psychic tension." Most likely to occur in non-stressful conditions.
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Environmental Effects on Behavior - Effect of the Ambient Environment - Air Pollution
has adverse effects on health and is associated with decreased cognitive performance and decreased sensitivity to social cues.
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Environmental Effects on Behavior - Effect of the Ambient Environment - High Temperatures
linked to a number of negative consequences including frustration, aggressiveness, and a tendency to make risky decisions
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Environmental Effects on Behavior - Effect of the Ambient Environment - Noxious or Excessive Noise
can cause stress and irritability, interfere with the ability to concentrate, and increase aggressiveness, especially among people who are already angry or annoyed.
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Environmental Effects on Behavior - Effect of Crowding
has little or no impact on simple tasks but can adversely affect performance on complex tasks.
high residential density has been linked to physical and mental health problems, poor academic performance, juvenile delinquency, and higher mortality rates.
positives - people prefer high density at football games, rock concerts, and similar events, and they tend to laugh more in high density environments.
Several factors contribute to the effects of crowding:
1. Perception of control help people cope better
2. less stressful when forewarned about crowded situation
3. cope better when distracted by other events in the environment
4. depends on a person's need for individual space
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Lewin's field theory predicts that behavior is always a function of the person and his/her __________, and Lewin and Miller have identified four types of intraindividual conflict: For example, a(n) __________ conflict occurs when we must choose between two equally positive or attractive goals while a(n) _________ conflict occurs when there are two goals to choose from that each have positive and negative qualities.
social and physical environment
approach-approach
double approach-avoidance
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The Zeigarnik effect refers to the fact that memory tends to be better for ________ tasks, especially in non-stressful situations.
uncompleted
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Factors in the ambient environment that have been linked to predictable behavioral consequences include air pollution, high temperatures, and noxious noise. For example, exposure to noise can cause stress, irritability, and aggressiveness, although its detrimental effects tend to reduce when people believe they can __________ even when they do not actually do so.
stop (control) the noise
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Crowding is most likely to affect performance on _______ tasks. According to the density intensity hypothesis, the different effects of crowding are due to the fact that crowding ________ positive experiences and makes unpleasant experiences more unpleasant. The effects of crowding are also moderated by the amount of _______ an individual requires. In general, men require ________ personal space than women and tend to act more __________ than women in crowded situations.
complex
enhances
personal space
more
aggressively
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he term in social psychology that refers the principle of having concern for the happiness of others, is known as:
A.collectivism
B.altruism
C.social conformity
D.selfless
B
Altruism refers to the principle of having concern for the happiness of others.
Answer A: Collectivism is the way people prioritize their goals, in this case, focusing on the priorities of the group, as opposed to the individual.
Answer C: Social conformity occurs when, as the result of real or imagined social pressure, a person shifts his or her actions in a way so that they correspond to those of other people.
Answer D: To be selfless, one is thought to have more concern with the needs and wishes of another, over oneself.
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Research on the bystander effect, or bystander intervention, suggests that a person is most likely to be helped in an emergency situation when:
A.there is one person nearby to help
B.there is a large crowd nearby
C.there are a group of friends nearby
D.there is a group of women nearby
A
Research on bystander intervention suggests that a person will more likely receive help in an emergency when a sole person is nearby than when a group of bystanders is around.
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With regard to the effects of crowding, which of the following is true?
A.Crowding seems to have virtually no effect on mental health.
B.The most common reaction to crowding is stress.
C.Crowding seems to have virtually no effect on physical health.
D.Crowding has not been shown to interfere with task performance.
B
One of the most common reactions to crowding appears to be stress and anxiety.
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Research by Sherif et al. (1961) suggests that, to decrease hostility between groups of junior high school students, you would be best advised to:
A.have them play a competitive game
B.organize a group activity
C.simply allow time to pass
D.establish a common goal for the group to work toward
D
Research has found that creating a common goal ("superordinate goal") for groups to work toward will tend to reduce inter-group hostility.
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Research investigating the effects of the "jigsaw method" in the classroom has demonstrated that it:
A.increases aggression, especially toward the provocateur
B.reduces racial/ethnic stereotyping
C.increases inter-group competition
D.has a negative effect on academic achievement
B
The jigsaw method involves having teams of students work together to complete an assignment, with each member being assigned a different task or aspect of the assignment. The jigsaw method has been found to have a number of beneficial effects, including raising self-esteem, improving cooperation, and reducing racial/ethnic stereotyping. In terms of academic achievement, it tends to improve the performance of minority-group children and either increases or has no effect on the performance of majority-group children.
Answer A: The "jigsaw method" does not increase aggression.
Answer C: The "jigsaw method" increases cooperation and intergroup functioning.
Answer D: The "jigsaw method" increases the performance of minority-group children and either increases or has no effect on the performance of majority-group children.
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The basic premise of the Zeigarnik effect is that:
A.incomplete tasks tend to be remembered more easily than completed ones
B.completed tasks tend to be remembered more easily than incomplete tasks
C.difficult tasks tend to be remembered more easily than less difficult tasks
D.easier tasks tend to be remembered more than difficult tasks
A
The Zeigarnik effect is a phenomenon whereby we tend to remember unfinished tasks more easily than finished ones, especially in non-stressful situations.
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