-
Types of Social Influence - Conformity to Social Norms
Occurs when, as the result of real or imagined social pressure, a person shifts his or her actions in a way so that they correspond to those of other people.
-
Types of Social Influence - Conformity to Social Norms - Autokinetic Effect
A perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room.
Research by Sherif asked participants to estimate how far the light moved. When alone the estimated varied widely. When placed in a group of confederates a "convergence effect" occurred where participants estimates followed those of the the group.
-
Types of Social Influence - Conformity to Social Norms - Informational Social Influence
People use information gained from others to interpret ambiguous stimuli of situations.
-
Types of Social Influence - Conformity to Social Norms - Normative Social Influence
A need to belong to the group.
-
Types of Social Influence - Compliance with Requests
Refers to changes in behavior that occur in response to explicit or implied requests.
-
Types of Social Influence - Obedience to Authority
Best known research is Milgram's shock experiment. The one where people were asked to shock a confederate at higher and higher voltage if they made a mistake. You know the one.
-
Responses to Social Influence - Types of Responses - Compliance
Occurs when the person changes his behavior to obtain a reward or avoid punishment. Compliance is public and does not involve private change in opinions or attitudes
-
Responses to Social Influence - Types of Responses - Identification
Occurs when the person changes his behavior because he wants to be liked by or identified with another person. In this case, behavior change reflects a private change in opinion or attitude, but the change is maintained only as long as the person continues to like or admire the influencing agent.
-
Responses to Social Influence - Types of Responses - Internalization
Occurs when the individual changes his behavior because he actually (privately) accepts the beliefs or attitudes of another person.
-
Responses to Social Influence - Minority Influence
To influence other members of a group, the member or members holding the minority position must adopt different strategies than those who agree with the majority opinion.
-
Responses to Social Influence - Psychological Reactance
Predicts that, when an attempt at social influence causes a person to feel a loss of personal freedom, the person may respond by acting in a way that is the opposite of what is desired.
-
Bases of Social Power - Coercive
The influencing agent has control over punishments
-
Bases of Social Power - Reward
The influencing agent has control over valued rewards and resources
-
Bases of Social Power - Expert
The influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, skills, or knowledge
-
Bases of Social Power - Referent
The target person is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent
-
Bases of Social Power - Legitimate
The target person believes the influencing agent has legitimate authority
-
Bases of Social Power - Informational
The influencing agent possesses specific information that is needed by the target person.
-
Sherif used the ______ effect to demonstrate that people will conform to the opinions of others in ambiguous situations. There is evidence that conformity to group norms is reduced when a person can express his/her opinion _________ or when at least one other person disagrees with the norm
autokinetic
anonymously
-
The ________ technique involves first making a small request and, when that request is accepted, making a larger request, while the _________ technique involves first making a large request and, when that request is rejected, making a smaller request.
foot in the door
door in the face
-
Milgram found that people were willing to obey a(n) ________ even when doing so had harmful consequences to another person. However, participants in Milgram's research were less willing to deliver maximum levels of shock when the learner was in the same room as the teacher, when the study was conducted in a _________, and when as assistant teacher refused to obey the experimenter
authority
warehouse
-
Moscovici proposed that a group member espousing a _______ opinion is more likely to influence other group members when he/she maintains a consistent position and remains firm and confident in presenting it.
minority
-
A loss of personal control can result in psychological _______, which causes a person to act in a way that is the opposite of what is requested.
reactance
-
According to French and Raven, a leader has _______ power when people are willing to do what he requests because they identify with or are attracted to him and ________ power when people do what is requested because they believe the leader has superior ability or expertise
referent
expert
-
The different bases of social power have different effects on beliefs and attitudes. For example, expert, legitimate, and informational power are most likely to result in ________.
internalization
-
Attitudes and Behavior
Research has generally confirmed a weak link between stated attitudes and behaviors but has also shown that attitudes are better predictors of behavior when certain conditions are met.
-
Attitudes and Behavior - Theory of Planned Behavior
attitudes are accurate predictors when the attitude measure assesses all three components of the behavioral intention - i.e., the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior, what the person believes other people think he should do, and the person's perceived behavioral control
-
Attitudes
relatively stable evaluative responses to an entity or situation and consist of three components:
Affective - reflects a person's liking for the entity or situation
Cognitive - consists of the person's beliefs about the entity or situation
Behavioral - represents a person's behavioral tendencies toward the entity or situation
All three are interrelated but inconsistencies between them are common
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Communicator
credibility has been identified as a key contributor to attitude change
Trustworthiness is a factor that contributes to credibility
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Communication - Level of Discrepancy
In general, change in attitude is greatest when the level of discrepancy between the positions of the communication and the recipient is in the moderate range.
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Communication - Order of Presentation
When both side of an argument are to be presented, a primacy effect is likely to occur when the second communication immediately follows the first and the measure of attitude change is taken at a later time.
In contrast, a recency effect is more likely when there is a period of time between the two communications and the attitude measure is administered immediately after the second communication
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Communication - Accidental Messages
Messages that are accidentally overheard by the recipient
More likely than intentional messages to induce attitude change. Apparently, this is because a communicator is perceived as more trustworthy when his message is overheard.
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Communication - Fear Arousal
Is sometimes an effective method for fostering attitude change, especially when the fear arousing message focuses on negative consequences and includes information about how to avoid the negative consequences.
However it can sometimes backfire and lead to denial and defensiveness if the message is too threatening.
-
Factors that Influence Attitude Change - Characteristics of the Audience
People with lower levels of intelligence, those with either low or high self-esteem, and those in their teens or early 20's tend to be more easily persuaded.
-
Theories of Attitude Change - Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Predicts that, when people experience incompatible cognition and behavior, they experience discomfort (dissonance), which they attempt to relieve using one of several methods.
In some situations, people change their attitude or behaviors, in others, they may add consonant information or downplay the importance of the inconsistency
One of the findings of research is that the more people suffer for something, the more positively they evaluate it.
-
Theories of Attitude Change - Balance Theory
Focus on the relations among three entities - the person (P), another person (O), and a third person, idea, event or object (X) - and proposes that the relations may be balanced or unbalanced, depending on the pattern of likes and dislikes among the entities.
Ex. Paul (P) likes Olive (O) and both like foreign films (X). The situation is balanced. In contrast if Paul (P) likes Olive (O) but hates foreign films (X) pail will experience imbalance and will be motivated to change his attitude toward Olive or toward foreign films.
-
Theories of Attitude Change - Elaboration Likelihood Model
Predicts that persuasion can occur in one of two ways: the central route, which involves systematic processing of information and is likely when the listener's motivation is high because the message is interesting or important, the listener has the ability to process the information contained in the message, and/or the listener is in a neutral or slightly negative mood.
The peripheral route, which relies on mental shortcuts (heuristics) and is likely when the listener is unmotivated because the message is uninteresting or unimportant, the listener lacks the ability to process the information, and/or the listener is in a positive mood.
The central route produces change that is more enduring and most resistant to future attempts at persuasion
-
Theories of Attitude Change - Social Judgment Theory
Proposes that we have 3 categories of judgment by which we evaluate persuasive messages - a latitude of acceptance, a latitude of non-commitment, and a latitude of rejection.
Most likely to be persuaded when the message is within our latitude of acceptance
-
Ajzen's theory of planned behavior proposed that attitudes are good predictors of behavior when the attitude measures assess all three components of the __________. Research on attitude change suggests that a high-credible communicator has more influence than a low-credible communicator but this discrepancy tends to _______ over time as the result of the _______ effect, which occurs because people tend to remember a message but forget its source.
behavioral intention
decrease
sleeper
-
A communicator has greater credibility when he/she is trustworthy, and trustworthiness increases when the communicator is arguing against his/her _________.
best interests
-
In terms of communication, the greatest amount of attitude change is associated with a _________ discrepancy between the recipient's position and the position presented in the communication.
moderate
-
When both sides of an argument are presented, a ________ effect is likely to occur when the second communication immediately follows the first and the measure of attitude change is taken at a later time. In addition, a(n) __________ message is usually more persuasive than an intentional message
primacy
accidental
-
Aronson and Mills's research on cognitive dissonancy theory found that women who underwent a ________ initiation into a group were more likely to describe the group in favorable terms.
severe
-
Festinger and Carlsmith's study found that participants who were paid ________ to describe a boring study as enjoyable to potential participants subsequently said the study was actually enjoyable
$1
-
Balance theory uses the principle of ________ to explain attitude change and focuses on the relations among three entities - ther person, another person, and a third person, idea, event, or object.
cognitive constancy
-
According to the elaboration likelihood model, persuasion can occur in one of two ways: It can involve the ________ route, which occurs when the listener finds the message interesting or personally relevant, or the ______ route, which is likely when the listener considers the message to be uninteresting or uninvolving.
central
peripheral
-
Social judgment theory predicts that we have three categories of judgment. a latitude of acceptance, a latitude of non-commitment, and a latitude of _________
rejection
-
According to McGuire, a recipient of a persuasive message is less likely to be persuaded when he/she has been _________ against it, which involves providing the recipient with arguments against his/her position and with weak __________.
inoculated
counterarguments
-
Susan works out at the gym every week and has a tendency to work much harder when there are several other people working out. This scenario can best be explained by:
A.social facilitation
B.anchoring
C.gain/loss
D.conformity
A
The notion of social facilitation was coined to explain the tendency to put in more effort in the presence of others.
Answer B: The anchoring heuristic involves using an initial value (anchor) as the basis for making a judgment or estimate and then making adjustments up or down from that starting value.
Answer C: This gain-loss effect is most likely to occur when the person’s change in opinion is gradual and clearly reflects a true “change of heart” (Aronson & Linder, 1965).
Answer D: Conformity occurs when, as the result of real or imagined social pressure, a person shifts his or her actions in a way so that they correspond to those of other people
-
James walks his dog and cleans up after him on a daily basis. Today, he forgot to bring the waste bags while out on his walk with the dog. Instead of cleaning up the waste, he tells himself since he always picks up his dog's waste, leaving it in the grass this one time is "no big deal." This is an example of:
A.cognitive dissonance
B.the hindsight bias
C.the wishful thinking syndrome
D.the optimism bias
A
Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that, when people experience incompatible cognition and behavior, they experience discomfort (dissonance), which they attempt to relieve using one of several methods.
Answer B: Hindsight bias is the common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were.
Answer C: Wishful thinking is an idea based on what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than on evidence, rationality, or reality.
Answer D: The tendency to overestimate positive outcomes and think that negative events won't affect us is known as the optimism bias.
-
According to the "elaboration likelihood model," a receiver of a persuasive message is most likely to rely on the "central route" for processing information when:
A.they are not very motivated and active in the process
B.they cannot access the peripheral route
C.they are active and motivated in the process and has the ability to think about the message.
D.they are not interested in the message/topic
C
The "elaboration likelihood model" is a model which attempts to explain the manner by which a person processes a persuasive message. It consists of the "central route" and the "peripheral route" of processing. A person would be relying on the central route of processing when they are interested in the message, active and motivated in the process, and has the ability to think about the message/topic. The peripheral route is used when the receiver of the message isn't interested in the message/topic and uses other cues besides the power and strength of the message.
Answer A: The central route of processing is used when the person is interested and motivated in the message and has the ability to think about the message.
Answer B: The peripheral route is used when the person isn't interested in the message and utilizes cues besides the power and strength of the message in processing the message.
Answer D: The central route of processing is used when the receiver of the message is motivated and active in the process.
-
The theory in social psychology which proposes that group identity is an important part of a person’s self-concept is known as _______________.
A.social identity theory
B.system justification theory
C.self-verification theory
D.self-perception theory
A
Social identity theory proposes that group identity is an important part of a person’s self-concept and that people are motivated to maintain a positive group identity by viewing their own social group as positive and distinct relative to other groups.
Answer B: System justification theory suggests that people are motivated to defend and justify the status quo in order to keep seeing society, politics, and other social systems as just and legitimate.
Answer C: Self-verification theory predicts that, once a person’s self-concept is formed, the person seeks to maintain it by using cognitive and behavioral strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with that self-concept.
Answer D: Self-perception theory proposes that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.
-
Margie attends a protest rally, which is not typical for her and is out of her comfort zone. She becomes so uncomfortable with her actions that she decides that attending these types of events is a good thing for herself and the community. Margie's experience might be said to reflect:
A.cognitive dissonance
B.low self-worth
C.a doubting personality style
D.an identity crisis
A
Festinger's (1959) cognitive dissonance theory predicts that, when people experience incompatible cognition and behavior, they experience discomfort (dissonance), which they attempt to relieve using one of several methods. For instance, in some situations, people change their attitudes or behaviors; in others, they may add consonant information or downplay the importance of the inconsistency.
-
A supervisor attempts to increase his influence by being sensitive to the needs of his subordinates and by acting as a role model. This supervisor is relying on which of the bases of power identified by French and Raven (1959):
A.coercive power
B.legitimate power
C.reward power
D.referent power
D
French and Raven identified five "bases of power" in their power and social influence studies. They are "reward," "coercive," "legitimate," "expert," and "referent." A sixth base of power was later identified as "informational power." Referent power applies to the scenario in the question, as it is defined as a leader's ability to influence followers due to the followers' admiration and respect for the leader--the follower will "refer" to what the leader would do.
Answer A: Coercive power is defined as the use of force to get a follower/employee to comply.
Answer B: Legitimate power is defined as a formal type of power based on a leader's place on the hierarchy. Followers/employees comply because of their belief in the leader's legitimate power.
Answer C: Reward power is defined as the use of and withholding of rewards to get an employee to comply.
-
According to Moscovici (1969), group members espousing the minority position are most likely to change the opinion of the majority when:
A.when the minority maintains consistency in their position
B.when the minority seems lukewarm in their position
C.when the minority is made up of extremely attractive people
D.when the minority is largely consistent, but waivers randomly
A
Moscovici's research on minority influence looked at behavioral styles (consistent/inconsistent). He believed that the best way for a minority to influence a majority was to remain consistent and unwavering in their position.
-
Sherif (1935) used the autokinetic effect to study:
A.visual perception
B.group cohesiveness
C.conformity
D.obedience
C
Sherif (1935) used the autokinetic effect to study conformity to group norms. Subjects were asked to look at a stationary point of light that appeared to move in a darkened room. They were then asked to estimate how far the point of light had moved in various trials. Results indicated that the group tended to conform to a common estimate.
-
Which of the following predicts that instituting a law that raises the minimum drinking age for purchasing alcohol from 18 to 21 will increase underage drinking among college students:
A.self-fulfilling prophecy
B.psychological reasoning
C.psychological reactance
D.social learning
C
The scenario in the question describes an example of psychological reactance. It occurs when a person feels that their choices and freedoms are being threatened, and there will be a motivational push to restore freedom.
Answer A: Self-fulfilling prophecy is the sociopsychological belief that someone can predict or expect something to come true simply because they believe it will.
Answer B: Psychological reasoning is broadly defined as the study of how people reason.
Answer D: Social learning theory describes aggressive behavior as the result of observational learning.
-
Sherif and Hovland's (1961) social judgment theory predicts that regarding persuasion, messages that fall within a person's "latitude of rejection" are:
A.likely persuasive
B.inaccurate
C.very persuasive
D.not persuasive
D
According to social judgment theory, when a persuasive message falls within our "latitude of rejection," it will not have persuasive power. The latitude of rejection contains positions on various issues which the person will reject.
-
The phenomenon that occurs within a group of people whereby the desire for harmony and consensus is so strong that it leads to irrational decision-making is known as:
A.think tank
B.groupthink
C.group decompensation
D.group irrationality
B
Groupthink is the term given to the phenomenon whereby the need for harmony and conformity is so strong within a group that it results in dysfunctional decision-making.
|
|
