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Impression Formation - Schemata (Schemas)
Organized, interconnected mental networks of information that are based on our previous personal and social experiences and help us to process and organize information.
Research has shown that people typically pay more attention to evidence that confirms their schemata, interpret new information in ways consistent with their schemata, and have better recall for schema-consistent information
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Impression Formation - Prototypes
more abstract than schemata and consist of knowledge about the most representative or ideal example of a particular category of people, objects, or events.
Your supervisor prototype may consist of the ideal attributes you believe a supervisor should have.
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Impression Formation - Scripts
Are also known as schemas and provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations.
Example: your script for "mental health clinic" informs you about how you should behavior in that setting and how you can expect other to behave.
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Impression Formation - Central Traits
Traits that provide unique information, are associated with a large number of other characteristics, and, as a result, carry more weight than other attributes.
Ex: a person described as intelligent, skillful, industrious, warm, determined, practical, and cautious is likely to be perceived more positively than a person described as intelligent, skillful, industrious, cold, determined, practical, and cautious
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Impression Formation - The Social Context
The behaviors of others tend to be perceived in a manner that is consistent with the social environment in which they occur
Rosenhan's research where eight people admitted themselves to mental hospitals stating they were hearing voices. Once admitted, they acted normal. All but one received a diagnosis of schizophrenia.
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Attribution of Cause
The process of determining or inferring why a behavior has occurred.
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Attribution of Cause - Types of Attributions - Dispositional versus Situational
Behavior may be attributed to the actor's dispositional (internal) attributes or to situational (external) factors. Mood, ability, and desire are dispositional; characteristics of the task, social situation, and physical environment are situational
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Attribution of Cause - Types of Attributions - Stable versus Unstable
Behavior may be assumed to be the result of stable, enduring factors (e.g., intelligence or personality) or unstable, temporary factors (e.g., fatigue or other transient state).
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Attribution of Cause - Types of Attributions - Specific versus Global
Specific behaviors are restricted to a limited number of events or circumstances, while global behaviors occur in many different situations.
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Attribution of Cause - Attributional Biases - Fundamental Attribution Error
Occurs when we overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors
Ex: we're more likely to attribute a stranger's rude behavior to his unpleasant personality than to the possibility that he's having a bad day.
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Attribution of Cause - Attributional Biases - Actor-Observer Effect
The tendency to make different attributions about our own behaviors and the behaviors of others. We are more likely to attribute our own behavior to situational factors and the behavior of others to dispositional factors.
Research has found that people will make attributions to whatever is most salient to them. For actors, the situation is most salient, but for observers, the actor is most salient.
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Attribution of Cause - Attributional Biases - Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to blame external factors for our failures and take credit for our successes.
We tend to attribute our behaviors to situational factors when the consequences are negative and dispositional factors when the consequences are positive.
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Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules-of-thumb, which people use when making attributions and other social judgements.
Allow us to reach conclusions quickly but may result in errors.
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Heuristics - Representativeness Heuristic
Basing your judgment about the likelihood that a person, object, or event belongs to a particular category on how representative (similar) the person, object, or event is to that category while ignoring probability (base rate) data.
Ex: If you learn that a person is introspective, creative, and likes to work alone, you are more likely to conclude that she's a writer of novels than a postal worker even though you have only limited information about her and number of postal workers in the population is much larger than the number of novelists.
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Heuristics - Availability Heuristic
Involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long-term memory.
You will predict that an event is more likely to occur if you are able to recall many examples of its occurrence than if you are able to recall only one example.
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Heuristics - Simulation Heuristic
Involves using mental simulations of an event to determine the likelihood that the event will happen - i.e., if you can easily imagine that event will happen, you are more likely to predict that it will happen
Ex: A silver medalist will be less happy about the win than a bronze medalist because it was easier for the silver medalist to imagine winning the gold.
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Heuristics - Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
Involves using an initial value (anchor) as the basis for making a judgment or estimate and then making adjustments up or down from the starting value
Ex: if the seller of an item at a flea market tells you that he usually sells the item for $10, your offer will be closer to $10 that it would have been if the seller said he usually sells the item for $7
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Cognitive Errors and Biases - Base Rate Fallacy
The tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse base rate data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic.
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Cognitive Errors and Biases - Confirmation Bias
The tendency to pay attention to information that confirms one's beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that does not.
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Cognitive Errors and Biases - Illusory Correlation
The belief that two characteristics, events, or other variables are related when they actually are not.
Similar to confirmation bias in terms of outcomes because it causes us to recall and pay more attention to information that confirms our beliefs
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Cognitive Errors and Biases - False Consensus Effect
Occurs when we overestimate the degree to which the beliefs, opinions, and behaviors of others are similar to our own.
Ex: Research asked college students who did or did not use drugs to estimate drug use by their peers and found that students who used drugs provided significantly higher estimates of peer drug use.
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Cognitive Errors and Biases - Gambler's Fallacy
The tendency to believe that the likelihood of a particular chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events when there is actually no relationship between the events
Ex: a gambler who is convinced that a string of losses must be followed by a win and by parents who think their next child will be a girl since they've already had four boys and no girls.
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The impressions we form of others are affected by a number of factors including _________, which are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that help use process and organize social information and __________, which provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in a specific social situation. Our impression are also influenced by _________ traits that carry more weight than other traits because they provide unique information about a person and by the _________, which was demonstrated by Rosenhan's pseudopatient study.
schemata
scripts
central
social context
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The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the ________ bias, which means that we tend to overestimate the role of ______ factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people.
fundamental attribution
dispositional
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Research on the actor-observer effect has shown that, when making self-attributions, we tend to attribute our successes to _________ factors and our failures to ________ factors. This tendency is referred to as the _______ bias.
dispositional
situational
self-serving
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Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use when making attributions and other social judgments. The _________ heuristic involves basing your judgments of a person, object, or event on how similar the person, object, or event is to the typical case while ignoring probability (base rate) data; while the ________ heuristic involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve information about the event from long term memory.
representativeness
availability
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Several cognitive errors and biases have been identified. One of these is the _________, which is the tendency to rely on case-specific information and ignore or underuse probability data when estimating the likelihood of an event or characteristic. Another is the _________, which is the tendency to pay attention to information that is consistent with one's beliefs and ignore or invalidate information that is not. The ________ effect occurs when we overestimate the extent to which the attitudes and beliefs of others are similar to our own.
base rate fallacy
confirmation bias
false consensus
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Affiliation
Considered to be an innate motive that contributes to the initiation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships
Affected by anxiety, arousability, and gender
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Affiliation - Anxiety
Research shows that people in anxiety provoking situations prefer to be around others in a similar situation. However, when given the option to be with unanxious people, high anxious people chose to be alone. coined the term misery loves miserable company.
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Affiliation - Arousability
The degree to which a person's central nervous system is physiologically aroused by external stimuli (including the presence of others) affects his/her desire to affiliate.
Introverts --> high arousability and likely to avoid affiliating with others to keep arousal from reaching uncomfortable levels
extroverts --> low on arousability and seek affiliations with others to stimulate their arousal to an optimal level.
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Affiliation - Gender
Women ordinarily spend more time in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same sex, and may affiliate more than men do in public places. Women have more close friends and female relationships depend most on verbal communication and self-disclosure.
Male friendships more often develop out of shared activities and men have greater tolerance for same-sex peers and friendships endure longer than female friendships.
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Attraction - Competence
We tend to like competent and intelligent people more than their incompetent and unintelligent peers. This is especially true when the competent person occasionally makes small blunders
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Attraction - Similarity
We are generally more attracted to people who are similar to ourselves, with similarity in attitudes being particularly important
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Attraction - Similarity - Law of Attraction
We are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes and, consequently, is more likely to generate positive affect
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Attraction - Reciprocity
We generally like others who like us and dislike those who dislike us. However, attraction to a person is often maximized when that person's evaluation of us is initially negative but then becomes positive (gain-loss effect)
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Close Relationships - Attraction in Romantic Relationships
Men and women differ with regard to the qualities that attract them to romantic partners
Men focus most on the physical attractiveness of a potential mate
Women are more interested in a potential mate's status and resources.
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Close Relationships - Attraction in Romantic Relationships - Evolutionary Psychology Theory of Attraction
Emphasizes gender differences in reproductive strategies (which may or may not be consciously accessible)
The primary goal for men is to pass on their genes to the next generation by widely dispersing their genetic material. As a result, men are attracted to young physically attractive women whose youth and beauty signal health and fertility.
The primary reproductive goal for women to pass on their genes to the next generation is to invest more heavily in the limited number of children they can produce given the physical restraints of pregnancy.
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Close Relationships - Sexual Jealousy
fairly universal, although cultures may differ with regard to the types of behaviors that elicit jealousy
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Close Relationships - Emotion in Intimate Relationships
people often experience their strongest emotions within the context of close interpersonal relationships
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Close Relationships - The Maintenance and Dissolution of Relationships - Social Exchange Theory
Predicts that the decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship's costs and rewards.
There is some evidence that social exchange theory is more predictive of relationships with strangers, acquaintances, and business associates than of relationships with family members and close friends because, in the latter relationships, we're less likely to expect something in return for our contributions.
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Close Relationships - The Maintenance and Dissolution of Relationships - Equity Theory
Our perception of equity (fairness) in a relationship is more important than the absolute magnitude of of the inputs (contributions or costs) and outcomes (rewards).
When people perceive a relationship to be inequitable in terms of input/outcome ratios, they experience distress and may decide to leave.
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Schachter's research on affiliation demonstrated that, in anxiety-arousing situations, social _________ is a more potent determinant of affiliation than relief from discomfort and that the adage "misery loves company" is more accurately stated as "misery loves _________."
comparison
miserable company
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In terms of gender, women spend more time than men in conversation and their friendships often depend more on communication and __________ than on shared activities.
self-disclosure
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We tend to be attracted to competent people, especially when they occasionally make _________. According to Byrne's law of attraction, interactions with people who have similar attitudes are more rewarding and therefore, more likely to produce _________. Research on the _______ effect has shown that we are most attracted to people who initially evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us positively.
small blunders
positive affect
gain-loss
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According to evolutionary theory, gender differences in attraction to a potential mate and sexual jealousy are attributable to gender differences in _________ goals. Consequently, with regard to sexual jealousy, men are more threatened by _________ infidelity, while women are more threatened by ________ infidelity
reproductive
sexual
emotional
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Berscheid's emotion-in-relationship model predicts that, in close relationships, emotion is triggered when a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupt ongoing _________. According to social exchange theory, the decision to remain in or leave a relationship is based on the _________ associated with the relationship, while equity theory proposes that this decision is related to our perception of the comparability of _________ ratios.
sequences of behaviors
costs and rewards
input/output
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When considering what it means for a person to be a person, two concepts should be considered: ________, which is the degree an individual may be differentiated from others; and __________, the clear internal consistency of an individual's identity. Online communication allows for opportunities to broaden and possibly strengthen social relationships, however, these interaction may be impersonal and demonstrate a lack of __________.
identifiability
personality
depth
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Self-Concept
The sum of beliefs that people have about themselves
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Self-Concept - Self-Schemas
The self-concept consists of multiple core and peripheral (working) self-schemas.
Core self-schemas are cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individual's social experience. Relatively stable and salient across situations.
In contrast, peripheral self-schemas are embedded in core self-schemas but are more malleable and tied to immediate social conditions
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Self-Concept - Self-Schemas - Barnum Effect
the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves. This is seen in horoscopes.
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Self-Concept - Self-Perception Theory
Proposes that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur
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Self-Concept - Self-Perception Theory - Epinephrine Studies
Examine the perception of emotions. Results demonstrate that there are no physiological differences between amotions and that the perception of emotions depends on a combination of physiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal.
This research showed that, in ambiguous situations, people look at cues in the external environment to identify their internal states.
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Self-Concept - Self-Perception Theory - Overjustification Hypothesis
Predicts that when an external reward is given to a person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, the person's intrinsic interest in the activity decreases.
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Self-Concept - Social Comparison Theory
People have an innate drive to evaluate their own opinions and behaviors; and, in the absence of objective standards, they do so by comparing their opinions and behaviors to those of other people.
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Self-Concept - Self-Verification Theory
Predicts that, once a person's self-concept is formed, the person seeks to maintain it by using cognitive and behavioral strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with that self-concept.
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Self-Presentation
AKA impression management and refers to the strategies people use to influence how others perceive them
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Self-Presentation - Self-Monitoring
The need and ability to manage the impressions that others form of them
high self-monitoring = most concerned about their "public self" and, consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behaviors to the situation. Good at hiding true feelings and opinions
Low self-monitoring = guided primarily be their own beliefs, values, and other internal cues and attempt to alter the situation to match their private self.
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Self-Presentation - Self-Handicapping
Occurs when people attempt to protect their self-esteem and public image be engaging in behaviors that will provide them with an excuse for an anticipated failure.
Ex: a student concerned about failing an exam will stay up late and party with friends the night before the exam so if she fails she can attribute it to the party rather than her lack of ability or knowledge
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Perceived Self-Control - Self-Efficacy
refers to a person's sense of competence and effectiveness. High levels have been associated with a number of benefits including higher levels or productivity and academic achievement, reduced vulnerability to depression and anxiety, and better response to treatment of health-related problems
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Perceived Self-Control - Locus of Control
Refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors.
Internal - consider outcomes to be under the control of their own decisions and behaviors
External - consider outcomes to be controlled by external forces such as luck, other people, or the nature of the situation.
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Perceived Self-Control - Hardiness
Resilience in the face of stress. Reduces the negative effects of stressful life event by facilitating transformational coping, which involves directly altering those events or thinking about them more optimistically and using social support and other resources.
Three primary characteristics:
Commitment - a sense of purpose and involvement in one's relationships and life events
Challenge - an openness to new experiences and change
Control - the belief that one has the ability to influence or manage life events.
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Markus and her colleagues (1977) describe the self-concept as consisting of multiple _________ and peripheral (working) self-schemas, and the multifaceted nature of the self-concept has bene offered as one explanation for the _________, which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves.
core
Barnum effect
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According to _________ theory, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, we identify out internal state by observing our _________ and/or the context in which they occur. This theory is supported by Schachter and Singer's epinephrine studies in which participants who were either _________ or ignorant about the effects of the drug acted much like the confederate did. Similarly, research on the __________ hypothesis found that, when children were given an external reward for participating in an activity, they were subsequently ________ interested in the activity when the reward was terminated
self-perception
external behaviors
misinformed
overjustification
less
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Social comparison theory predicts that we evaluate our behaviors and attributes by comparing them to those of other people, most often who we believe are ________ to us. Research on _________ theory confirms that we generally prefer feedback about ourselves that is consistent with our self-concept.
similar
self-verification
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People differ with regard to their level of self-monitoring: ________ self-monitors are good at identifying what behaviors are expected of them and behave in ways that are consistent with those expectations. Finally, _______ refers to a persons sense of competence and effectiveness, while _______ refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal versus external factors.
high
self-efficacy
locus of control
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Which of the following is NOT an example of a cognitive bias?
A.The fundamental attribution error
B.The self-serving bias
C.The actor/observer effect
D.The combination bias
D
The combination bias is a made-up term and is not an example of a cognitive bias. All of the other responses represent an example of cognitive biases.
Answer A: The attributions we make about the behaviors of others often reflect the fundamental attribution error, which occurs when we overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors.
Answer B: The tendency to blame external factors for our failures and take credit for our successes is referred to as the self-serving bias.
Answer C: The tendency to make different attributions about our own behaviors and the behaviors of others is referred to as the actor-observer effect.
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Jane is exhibiting ____________ when she tends to pay more attention to messages and experiences that support her view on a controversial issue while ignoring those that discredit her view.
A.the illusion of control
B.the misinformation bias
C.the confirmation bias
D.an external locus of control
C
The tendency to pay more attention to information that confirms our existing beliefs, while ignoring that which is opposite to our beliefs, is known as the confirmation bias.
Answer A: The illusion of control ultimately hinges on the belief that one has the ability to influence or manage life events.
Answer B: The misinformation effect refers to the tendency for post-event information to interfere with the memory of the original event
Answer D: Those with an external locus of control consider outcomes to be controlled by external forces such as luck, other people, or the nature of the situation.
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Social psychology can best be described as the way people _________________others.
A.influence
B.think about, influence, and relate to
C.interact with
D.think about
B
Social Psychology is best thought of as the way we think about, influence, and relate to other people.
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Research on attraction suggests that more physically attractive people are seen as:
A.more intelligent than less attractive people
B.less intelligent in general
C.equally intelligent as less attractive people
D.more intelligent than less attractive people, however, this only applies to females
A
Research on attraction suggests that physically attractive people are perceived as being more intelligent than less physically attractive people.
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A student who is chronically depressed is most likely to attribute the low score he received on his final exam to:
A.situational factors
B.internal and stable factors
C.internal and rapidly-changing factors
D.situational and rapidly-changing factors
B
Research on attribution and depression has shown that a depressed person will likely attribute a failure to more internal and stable factors.
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The statement, "You fell because you tripped, but I fell because I was pushed" BEST illustrates which of the following?
A.The actor/observer effect
B.The fundamental attribution error
C.The halo effect
D.The misinformation effect
A
The scenario in the question is best described by the "actor/observer effect." It is the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors ('I was pushed") and others' behaviors to internal/personal factors ("you tripped").
Answer B: The fundamental attribution error also reflects the tendency to attribute others' behaviors to more internal/dispositional factors, but only relates to attributions about the behavior of others.
Answer C: The halo effect is the tendency to rely on one's initial impression of a person to influence how one sees them overall.
Answer D: The misinformation effect describes the tendency for memories of an event to be heavily influenced by things that occur after the actual event itself.
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The tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors when inferring the cause of another person's behavior is referred to as the:
A.the prejudice error/bias
B.the self/other bias
C.fundamental attribution error/bias
D.the erroneous labeling bias
C
The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal/dispositional factors, while underestimating situational factors, is known as the "fundamental attribution error/bias."
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Schachter and Singer's (1962) two-factor theory of emotion consists of:
A.physiological arousal followed by immediate relaxation
B.physiological arousal and a high degree of emotional regulation
C.physiological arousal and a dramatic personality
D.physiological arousal and a cognitive label
D
Schachter and Singer's (1962) two-factor theory of emotion consists of physiological arousal and a cognitive label for the arousal.
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"Equity theory" predicts that a person's satisfaction in a close personal relationship is related to the person's:
A.sense of personality similarity
B.sense of fairness in the exchange of such things as goods and services, time, and effort
C.belief that "opposites attract"
D.sense of competitiveness in the relationship
B
According to "equity theory," people have a natural inclination to maintain equity in relationships. There is a sense of fairness in the exchange of things such as time, effort, and goods/services.
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Berscheid's (1983) "emotion-in-relationships model" suggests that strong emotions in a relationship occur when:
A.the partners have nothing in common
B.one partner is more immature than the other
C.both partners continue disappointing each other
D.a partner violates the expectancies of the other partner and interrupts the behavior sequence
D
Berscheid (1983) proposed a theory of emotions within relationships, referred to as the emotion-in-relationships model. This model suggests that intense emotions (joy, surprise, anger, etc.) occur when a partner violates the other partner's expectancies, thus, interrupting a behavior sequence.
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Self-verification theory predicts that a husband who has low self-esteem, is overweight, and is chronically depressed will prefer his wife to:
A.see him in a manner that is the opposite of how he sees himself
B.shower him with positive feedback
C.give him feedback that corresponds to his own beliefs about himself
D.critique his belief system
C
Self-verification theory predicts that people tend to recall and pay attention to information that confirms their self-concepts and prefer to interact with others who provide information that confirms their self-views, even when those views are negative.
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__________ are interconnected mental networks of information that are based on our previous personal and social experiences and help us process and organize information.
A.Schemas
B.Scripts
C.Prototypes
D.Traits
A
Schemata (or schemas) are organized, interconnected mental networks of information that are based on our previous personal and social experiences and help us process and organize information
Answer B: Scripts are also known as event schemas and provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations.
Answer C: Prototypes are more abstract than schemata and consist of knowledge about the most representative or ideal example of a particular category of people, objects, or events.
Answer D: Asch (1946) found that certain traits influence impressions more than others. According toAsch, this is because “warm” and “cold” are central traits that provide unique information, are associated with a large number of other characteristics, and, as a result, carry more weight than other attributes. More recent work suggests that two primary dimensions underlie impressions of others; warmth and competence (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2010).
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Studies have confirmed that men and women differ with regard to the qualities that attract them to romantic partners. This is best explained as:
A.a fairy-tale syndrome
B.the "missing piece" phenomenon
C.evolutionary psychology theory of attraction.
D.complementarity
C
The studies have confirmed that men and women differ with regard to the qualities that attract them to romantic partners, with men focusing most on the physical attractiveness of a potential mate and women being more interested in a potential mate’s status and resources (e.g., Fletcher et al., 2004). An explanation for these differences has been provided by evolutionary psychology theory of attraction.
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Social exchange theory relates to which of the following?
A.fairness
B.costs and rewards
C.competition performance
D.community involvement
B
Social exchange theory predicts that the decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship’s costs and rewards – i.e., we’re likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than rewards. There is some evidence that social exchange theory is more predictive of relationships with strangers, acquaintances, and business associates than of relationships with family members and close friends because, in the latter relationships, we’re less likely to expect something in return for our contributions (e.g., Clark & Mills, 1993).
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