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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Temporal Lobes
essential for encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories, with the right and left lobes serving somewhat different functions.
removal of the right temporal lobe, deficits are found primarily on nonverbal memory tasks (e.g., measures of face-recognition, spatial position, maze learning, and emotional memory)
Removal of left temporal lobe produces impaired performance on measure of verbal memory (e.g., recall of word lists and stories and recognition of words and numbers).
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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Hippocampus
Responsible for consolidating long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term to long-term memory) but not for the subsequent storage of those memories.
Also essential for spatial memory and, along with the temporal lobes, prefrontal cortex, and thalamus, is responsible for explicit memory (memory requiring conscious recollection).
Degeneration of neurons linked to memory loss due to aging and Alzheimer's Disease
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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Amygdala
Plays a key role in fear conditioning and adding emotional significance to memories.
There is evidence that the amygdala is responsible for the recall of traumatic events and may contribute to the development of PTSD
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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Prefrontal Cortex
Plays a role in episodic memory and prospective memory and in constructive memory and false recognition.
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is important for working memory, and impairments in working memory in patients with schizophrenia have been linked to abnormal activities in this area
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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Thalamus
Involved in processing incoming information and transferring it to the cortex.
Damage to certain areas in the thalamus produces anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation (e.g., Korsakoff's Syndrome)
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Learning and Memory - Brain Mechanisms - Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum, and Motor Cortex
play a rile in procedural memory (e.g., memory for sensorimotor skills) and implicit (unconscious, nonintentional) memory
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Learning and Memory - Neural Mechanisms - Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
refers to the greater responsivity of a postsynaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynaptic neuron for hours, days, or even weeks after the presynaptic neuron has been barraged by high-frequency stimulation.
Mediates long-term memory by causing changes in the number ad shape of the cell's dendrites, promoting the formation of new synaptic connections, and increasing the number of glutamate receptors
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Learning and Memory - Neural Mechanisms - Protein Synthesis
Long-term memory seems to depend on enhanced protein synthesis during the minutes or hours following learning or training.
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Following bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to relieve severe epilepsy, H.M. was able to recall remote events, but exhibited severe _________ amnesia and retrograde amnesia for ________ events.
anterograde
recent
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A number of areas of the brain play an important role in learning and memory. The _______ lobes are essential for the storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memories; the _______ is involved in memory consolidation and explicit memory; and the __________ attaches emotion to memory. In addition the _________ cortex plays a role in episodic memory, prospective memory, and working memory, while the ________, cerebellum, and motor cortex contribute to procedural and implicit memory.
temporal
hippocampus
amygdala
prefrontal
basal ganglia
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At the neural level, ________ in the hippocampus is believed to be important for long-term memory. There is also evidence that long-term memory depends on increased _________ during the minutes or hours following training. When the synthesis of protein or ________ is inhibited at the time of training, long-term memory is impaired.
long-term potentiation (LTP)
protein synthesis
RNA
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Language - Brain Asymmetry
The left hemisphere is dominant for language, but the right hemisphere also participates in the production and comprehension of language.
If left hemisphere is damaged, the right hemisphere assumes language functions to some degree.
Damage to the right hemisphere may cause subtle linguistic impairments including abnormalities in prosody, syntax, and pragmatic (social) language skills.
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Language - Aphasia
refers to impaired language production and/or comprehension as the result of brain damage
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Language - Aphasia - Broca's Aphasia
AKA expressive, motor, and nonfluent aphasia - is caused by damage to Broca's areas, which is located in the dominant (usually left) frontal lobe.
Speak slowly and with great difficulty. Speech if poorly articulated and lacks normal intonation, stress, and rhythm (dysprosody), and frequently omit conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and the endings of nouns and verbs.
Often exhibit anomia (inability to name common or familiar objects, attributes, or actions) and have difficulty repeating phrases, especially phrases containing many prepositions and conjunctions.
Compression of language is usually only mildly impacted.
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Language - Aphasia - Wernicke's Aphasia
AKA receptive, impressive, sensory, and fluent aphasia - caused by damage to Wernicke's area, which is located in the dominant (usually left) temporal lobe
have trouble understanding written and spoken language and generating meaningful language. Although speech is rapid, seems effortless, and exhibits appropriate syntactical structure, it is often largely devoid of content.
Usually exhibit anomia, paraphasia (the substitution of words related in sound or meaning to the intended words), and problems with repetition.
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Language - Aphasia - Conduction (Associative) Aphasia
Wernicke's and Broca's areas are connected by the arcuate fasciculus, and damage to this structure can produce this aphasia
Does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition
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Language - Aphasia - Transcortical Aphasia
Caused by lesions outside of Broca's and Wernicke's areas that disconnect these areas from other region of the brain
transcortical motor aphasia - Broca's area is separated and symptoms are similar to Broca's aphasia
transcortical sensory aphasia - Wernicke's area is separated and symptoms are similar to Wernicke's aphasia
Mixed transcortical aphasia - both areas are separated. people are able to talk but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language
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Language - Aphasia - Global Aphasia
Caused by widespread brain damage and is characterized by extensive disruption in the ability to produce and understand language.
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Damage to Broca's area produces _______ aphasia. People with this disorder speak slowly and with difficulty and their speech is poorly ________, but they usually have little or no difficulty _________ language.
Broca's/expressive
articulated
comprehending
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Damage to Wernicke's area results in _________ aphasia. People with this form of aphasia speak rapidly and effortlessly but their speech is usually _________, and they have trouble understanding written and spoken language.
Wernicke's/receptive
devoid of content/meaningless
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________ aphasia results from damage to the arcuate fasciculus and involves ________ (an inability to name a familiar object, attribution, or action), paraphasia, and impaired repetition
conduction
anomia
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_______ aphasia is caused by lesions that isolate Broca's and Wernicke's areas from other regions of the brain, while _______ aphasia is caused by widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas as well as other areas in the left frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.
Transcortical
global
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An adult with damage to his hippocampus can be expected to:
A.Experience episodes of unprovoked aggressiveness and rage
B.Forget events that occur after the accident that caused the damage
C.Have trouble falling asleep at night
D.Exhibit "pseudodepression"
B
The hippocampus is involved in learning and memory. The hippocampus is responsible for memory consolidation, and damage produces impairments in the ability to transfer information from short-to long-term memory.
Answer A: Someone with damage to their hippocampus would not experience aggressiveness or rage.
Answer C: The hippocampus plays a role in memory consolidation during sleep but does not regulate sleep-wake cycles.
Answer D: This answer is more consistent with damage to other areas of the brain, such as the prefrontal cortex.
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The ___________ are (is) essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories, with the right and left lobes serving somewhat different functions.
A.temporal lobes
B.thalamus
C.amygdala
D.hippocampus
A
The temporal lobes are essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories, with the right and left lobes serving somewhat different functions.
Answer B: The thalamus is involved in processing incoming information and transferring it to the cortex.
Answer C: The amygdala plays a key role in fear conditioning and adding emotional significance to memories.
Answer D: The hippocampus is responsible for consolidating long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term to long-term memory) but not for the subsequent storage of those memories.
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The __________, cerebellum, and motor cortex contribute to procedural and implicit memory.
A.amygdala
B.prefrontal cortex
C.basal ganglia
D.thalamus
C
The basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex play a role in procedural memory (e.g., memory for sensorimotor skills) and implicit (unconscious, nonintentional) memory.
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Damage to the arcuate fasciculus can produce _____________.
A.transcortical aphasia
B.conduction aphasia
C.global aphasia
D.frontal lobe
B
Wernicke's area and Broca's area are connected by the arcuate fasciculus, and damage to this structure can produce conduction aphasia. This disorder does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.
Answer A: Transcortical aphasia is caused by lesions outside Broca's and Wernicke's areas that disconnect these areas from other regions of the brain.
Answer C: Global aphasia is caused by widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas as well as other areas in the left frontal, temporal and parietal lobes and is characterized by extensive disruption in the ability to produce and understand language.
Answer D: This is too general of a response - damage to the frontal lobe can include loss of movement, difficulty performing tasks that require a sequence of movements, trouble with speech or language, etc.
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Individuals with this form of aphasia may be able to say a few words and produce automatic speech (especially emotional exclamations)?
A.global aphasia
B.associative aphasia
C.Wernicke's aphasia
D.mixed transcortical aphasia
A
Global aphasia is caused by widespread brain injury involving Broca's and Wernicke's areas as well as other areas in the left frontal, temporal and parietal lobes and is characterized by extensive disruption in the ability to produce and understand language. Individuals with this form of aphasia may be able to say a few words and produce automatic speech (especially emotional exclamations).
Answer B: Conduction (associative) aphasia does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.
Answer C: Wernicke's aphasia (also known as receptive, impressive, sensory, and fluent aphasia) is caused by damage to Wernicke's area. Individuals have trouble understanding written and spoken language and generating meaningful language.
Answer D: Individuals with mixed transcortical aphasia are able to talk but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language. They can, however, produce automatic responses (such as singing familiar songs) and repeat words, phrases, or sentences spoken by others.
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