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Latent Learning - Tolman and Honzik (1930)
Proposed learning often takes place without being manifested in performance improvements - i.e., learning can be latent.
Had 3 groups of rats run a maze. group 1 always reinforced, group 2 never reinforced, group not reinforced until 11th day,
Group 3 ultimately became the superior group suggesting group 3 made cognitive maps of the maze without being reinforced, which suggests latent learning and reinforcement is not necessary for the learning of a response.
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Insight Learning - Kohler
Insight learning reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the perceptual field (environment) that enhances the organism's ability to achieve its goals.
Gave a cages chimp 2 sticks and put a banana outside of his cage. The banana could only be reached if the 2 sticks were combined. After several failed attempts with one stick, the chimp joined the sticks together and reached the banana.
Kohler argued that this behavior demonstrates that learning can be the result of insight (an aha experience).
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura
Proposes that most complex human behaviors are learned by observing another person perform those behaviors and that observational learning is useful not only for teaching new behaviors but also for enhancing or inhibiting existing ones.
Derived from the Bobo doll experiments where children replicated aggressive or nonaggressive behaviors demonstrated by adults on the Bobo doll.
Also demonstrated boys were more likely to imitate males models and girls more likely to imitate females, boys and girls were similar in verbal aggression imitation but boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression, and providing incentives for imitating aggressive behavior reduced gender differences in physical aggression.
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Observational Learning Processes - Attentional Processes
The learner attends to and accurately perceives the modeled behavior
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Observational Learning Processes - Retention Processes
The learner symbolically processes the modeled behavior in memory via visual imagery and verbal coding.
Retention is maximized through cognitive rehearsal
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Observational Learning Processes - Production Processes
The learner must be able to accurately reproduce and rehearse the modeled behavior
Production is enhanced through practice and performance feedback
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Observational Learning Processes - Motivational Processes
While learning can occur without reinforcement, performance requires motivation.
Motivation is enhanced when the learner is reinforced, but reinforcement may be either internal (self-reinforced), vicarious, or external
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Model Characteristics - When are observers more likely to imitate a model?
1. the model is high in status, prestige, or expertise
2. the model is similar to the observer, especially in terms of age and gender
3. the model's behavior is visible, salient, and relevant to the observer's needs and goals
4. the model has been reinforced for engaging in the behavior (which is referred to as vicarious reinforcement)
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Guided Participation
Consists of having the learner observe the model perform the behavior and then perform the behavior him/herself with assistance from the model
modeling is most effective when it is combined with guided participation
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Self-Efficacy
A person's beliefs about his or her ability to perform a behavior or task or to achieve certain goals.
A central concept in Bandura's theory
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Self-Efficacy - What are the 4 informational sources that impact Self-Efficacy?
1. enactive attainment - prior success in performing the task
2. vicarious experience - observing others similar to oneself successfully perform the task
3. very persuasion - encouragement by others
4. emotional and physiological states - arousal, anxiety, fatigue, and other forms of emotional and physical feedback
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Observational (Social) Learning - Bandura - Reciprocal Determinism
Predicts that there is a reciprocal (interactive and influential) relationship between a person's environment, overt behaviors, and cognitive, affective, and other personal characteristics
A person's past experiences in various career-related activities (past behavior) influence his or her career preferences and choices (personal factors and current behavior), and the career chosen by the person (environment) then affects his or her future career-related preferences, decisions, and behaviors.
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Learned Helplessness
Not a general theory of learning but, instead, applies to the cognitive processes associated with depression.
Refers to the tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment
was first observed in animals that had been exposed to uncontrollable electric shock and subsequently did not even try to escape the shock when it was possible to do so.
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Learned Helplessness - Reformulated Version (depression)
depression occurs when a person makes internal, stable, and global attributes for negative events.
In other words, depressed people attribute the cause of negative events to themselves, believe that they will always cause negative events to happen to them, and think they cause negativity in all aspects of their lives.
The model was again revised to state the role of attributions is depression are important only to the extent to which they contribute to a person's sense of hopelessness
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Tolman's research with rats in mazes suggested that the rats formed cognitive maps, thereby providing evidence of ________ learning.
Latent
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Kohler proposed that _______ learning involves internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that allows the organism to achieve its goals
Insight
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According to Bandura, observational learning involves fours processes: attention, __________, production, and motivation. Research on observational learning suggests that ________ modeling is the most effective form of modeling for treating phobias and that _______ models are more effective than mastery models. Bandura also proposed that a person's self-efficacy beliefs are a primary souce of motivation and are affected by four informational sources: enactive attainment, __________ experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. His notion of _______ predicts that there's and interactive and influential relationship between a person's environment, overt behaviors, and personal characteristics.
retention
Participant
coping
vicarious
reciprocal determinism
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The reformulated version of the learned helplessness model describes depression as the result of ________ attributions about negative events. Most recently, the model was revised to incorporate the impact of a sense of _________.
internal, stable, and global
hopelessness
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A researcher designs a study to investigate college students' expectations regarding their ability to master a new skill, achieve a particular goal, or produce a particular outcome. Apparently, this researcher is interested in which of the following phenomena?
A.Locus of control
B.Need for achievement
C.Self-actualization
D.Self-efficacy
D
Bandura used the term self-efficacy to refer to an individual's beliefs or expectations regarding his/her ability to perform specific behaviors. For example, a person has high self-efficacy beliefs when she believes that she has the knowledge or skills necessary to successfully complete a particular task. Of the phenomena listed in the answers, self-efficacy best describes the researcher's interest.
Answer A: Rotter used the term locus of control to refer to a person's beliefs about the factors that control his/her outcomes, and he distinguished between an internal and external locus of control.
Answer B: McClelland used the term need for achievement to refer to an acquired characteristic that motivates individuals to undertake tasks when there is a moderate probability for successful performance.
Answer C: As defined by Maslow, self-actualization refers to the full use or development of one's potential.
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Bandura's notion of reciprocal determinism is useful for explaining:
A.how a more desirable response can be used to replace an undesirable response
B.how the individual and his/her environment influence each other
C.how learning can occur without being manifested in performance
D.why a behavior is performed without being internally or externally reinforced
B
As defined by Bandura, reciprocal determinism refers to the interactions between a person's characteristics, the person's behavior, and the environment. Bandura rejected the behavioral view of the environment as a one-way determinant of behavior and proposed that there is a reciprocal (influential and interactive) relationship between the person's cognitive, affective, and other characteristics, the person's behavior, and the environment.
Answer A: This answer describes Wolpe's notion of reciprocal inhibition.
Answer C: Although Bandura believed that learning can occur without being manifested in performance, this is not a prediction or assumption of his notion of reciprocal determinism.
Answer D: Bandura's social learning theory addresses the role of reinforcement in the acquisition of a behavior, but this part of his theory is not directly relevant to the notion of reciprocal determinism. His social learning theory states that learning of a behavior can occur without reinforcement, but performance of that behavior is more likely when the behavior is reinforced.
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Kohler's (1925) research with chimpanzees led to his description of which of the following?
A.Cognitive maps
B.Observational learning
C.Insight learning
D."Superstitious" behavior
C
Kohler proposed that learning can be the result of insight (an "aha" experience) that reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that allows the organism to achieve its goals.
Answer A: Tolman concluded that rats in his studies had developed cognitive maps of the mazes they were allowed to explore.
Answer B: Bandura is associated with his observational learning theory, which predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else perform those behaviors.
Answer D: Skinner found that accidental, noncontingent reinforcement can lead to "superstitious" behavior.
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Tolman used the notion of "cognitive maps" as support for which of the following?
A.The law of effect
B.Insight learning
C.Latent learning
D.Observational learning
C
Tolman's notion of cognitive maps was derived from his research in which rats were allowed to explore a maze without being reinforced for doing so. The results indicated that the animals had learned something about the maze; that is, they had formed cognitive maps. This led Tolman to conclude that learning can occur without apparent changes or improvements in behavior and referred to this as latent learning.
Answer A: According to Thorndike's law of effect, a behavior that is followed by a "satisfying consequence" will likely occur again.
Answer B: Kohler proposed that learning can be the result of insight (an "aha" experience) that reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that allows the organism to achieve its goals.
Answer D: Bandura's observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else perform those behaviors.
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From the perspective of the reformulated version of the learned helplessness model, depression results when a person attributes negative events to:
A.external, stable, and global factors
B.external, unstable, and specific factors
C.internal, unstable, and specific factors
D.internal, stable, and global factors
D
Abramson et al.'s (1978) reformulated version of the learned helplessness model added attributions for negative events to the original model. According to the reformulated version, people who are depressed tend to blame themselves for negative events, believe that negative events will always happen to them, and think that negativity will affect all aspects of their lives. In other words, they make internal, stable, and global attributions.
Answer A: The reformulated version of the learned helplessness model predicts that people who are depressed make internal (not external), stable, and global attributions.
Answer B: This answer choice reflects the opposite of what the reformulated version of the learned helplessness model predicts. The model posits that people who are depressed make internal (not external), stable (not unstable), and global (not specific) attributions for negative events.
Answer C: Abramson et al.'s (1978) reformulated version of the learned helplessness model predicts that people who are depressed make attributions for negative events that are internal, stable (not unstable), and global (not specific).
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Bandura's research on the effects of modeling for treating snake phobia found that which of the following was the most effective strategy?
A.Symbolic modeling
B.Participant modeling
C.Covert modeling
D.Vicarious modeling
B
Bandura found that participant modeling (observing a model followed by guided participation) was the most effective method for eliminating phobic reactions.
Answer A: Symbolic modeling refers to observation of a filmed model, and Bandura found that participant modeling is superior to symbolic modeling.
Answer C: Covert modeling refers to a client imagining the observation of a model performing a target behavior, and then imagining a reinforcer or punishment applied to the target behavior.
Answer D: Vicarious modeling occurs when a learner observes a model being reinforced (or punished) for engaging in a behavior. Although vicarious modeling may be used to treat phobic reactions, participant modeling is a superior treatment due to the addition of guided participation. Guided participation refers to the learner performing the target behavior with assistance from the model that they observed engaging in the behavior.
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