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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Contingency
The reinforcer should be available only when the target behavior has been performed.
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Immediacy
To maximize the benefits of positive reinforcement, the reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target behavior. Particularly important for a new behavior
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Schedule of Reinforcement
best to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and change to an intermittent schedule once the behavior is well-established
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Schedule of Reinforcement - Thinning
The process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Magnitude
Up to a point, the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater its effectiveness. Past that point satiation may occur
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Magnitude - Satiation
a reinforcer has lost its reinforcing value
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - prompts
Verbal or physical prompts facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior. When a prompt signals that the behavior will be reinforced, it's acting as a positive discriminative stimulus.
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Prompts - Fading
The gradual removal of a prompt.
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Shaping
Involves reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behavior; that is, providing reinforcement only for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired one.
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Chaining
The establishment of a behavior chain and can be either forward or backward
Forward chaining begins with the first component in the chain and gradually works through the entire chain
Backward chaining involves establishing the components of the chain in reverse order.
Different from shaping in that chaining is interested in the entire sequences where shaping is interest only in the final behavior
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Premack Principle
A high probability behavior is used to reinforce a low probability behavior.
Increasing the amount of studying a student does by telling them they can only watch TV (high probability behavior) after they have finished studying (low probability behavior) to increase study time.
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Increasing Behavior with Reinforcement - Differential Reinforcement
Combines positive reinforcement with extinction and involves reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring the target behavior.
A child who engages in stereotypes hand movements (which are self-reinforcing) might be reinforced with nickels or tokens for each two-minute period she plays with her toys rather than engaging in the hand movements. Playing with toys is being reinforced while hand movements are being extinguished
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Immediacy
The sooner the punishment is administered, the more successful it will be.
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Consistency
To be successful, punishment must be applied on a continuous schedule. It should follow each performance of the target behavior
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Intensity
Usually most effective when it is initially applied in moderation. When too strong, it is more likely to produce avoidance, aggression, and other undesirable behaviors. Initially administering punishment in a weak form and then gradually increasing its intensity increases likelihood of habituation
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Intensity - habituation
occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Removal of all Positive Reinforcement
Punishment works best when all stimuli that previously reinforced the behavior are identified and consistently withheld at the same time the behavior is being punished.
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Reinforcement for Alternative Behaviors
Because punishment can only teach a person what not to do, its effectiveness increases substantially when it's combined with reinforcement for alternative behaviors
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Verbal Reprimands
Effects are inconsistent, however, and in some situations, reprimands act as positive reinforcers and actually increase the target behavior. Effects are likely to be temporary if they are not backed-up or followed by other consequences
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Overcorrection
A form of positive punishment that entails applying a penalty following an undesirable behavior in order to eliminate it. Has two forms and may involve one or both
Restitution - having the individual correct any negative effects of the behavior
positive practice - requires the person to practice more appropriate behaviors, usually in an exaggerated fashion
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Negative Practice
The opposite of positive practice and involves requiring the person to deliberately repeat the undesirable behavior to the point that it becomes aversive to the person or they become fatigued
Especially useful for eliminating habits or other unwanted behaviors a person cannot control
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Response Cost
Involves removing a specific reinforcer each time the target behavior is performed.
taking away game time when engaging in bad behavior
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Decreasing Behavior with Punishment - Time-Out from Reinforcement
Involves removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief, prespecified period of time following a behavior in order to decrease that behavior
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Contingency Contracts
An application of contingency management that involves a formal written agreement between two or more people (therapist/client, parent/child, teacher/student) that clearly defines the behaviors that are to be modified and the rewards and punishments that will follow performance of those behaviors.
Most effective when the person whose behavior is to be modified actively participates in the development of the contract.
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Token Economy
A structured environment in which desirable behaviors are increased by reinforcing them with tokens (generalized secondary reinforcers) that can be exchanged for desired items, activities, and other back-up (primary) reinforcers, while undesirable behaviors are decreased by withholding or removing tokens following those behaviors.
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Positive reinforcement is most effective when the reinforcer is delivered ________ the behavior; and up to a point, the greater the magnitude of the reinforcer, the greater the effects. After that point, however, ________ can occur, which reduces the effectiveness of the reinforcement. Prompts facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior and the gradual removal of prompts is referred to as _________.
Immediately after
satiation
fading
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Shaping is one form of positive reinforcement, involves reinforcing _______ to the desired behavior. Shaping should not be confused with ________, which involves establishing a sequence of responses. When using the Premack Principle, a _________ behavior serves as a reinforcer for a behavior that does not occur often enough; and when using _______, the target behavior is ignored and alternative behaviors are reinforced.
successive approximations
chaining
high frequency
differential reinforcement
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Punishment is most effective when it is applied at the _______ of the target behavior when it is applied on a(n) ________ schedule. To avoid _________, punishment should be administered in moderate intensity from the start rather than beginning with a weak form and gradually increasing its intensity. It's important to keep in mind that punishment does not eliminate behavior but merely _______ it.
onset
continuous
habituation
suppresses
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Overcorrection consists of two procedures that can be used individually or together: ________ requires the person to overcorrect the effects of the behavior, while _________ requires the person to practice alternative and more appropriate behaviors.
Restitution
positive practice
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Response cost entails removing a __________ each time the target behavior occurs. while _______ involves removing all sources of reinforcement for a prespecified period of time following the behavior
positive reinforcer
time out
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Operant extinction involves withholding reinforcement from a _________ behavior to decrease that behavior. To maximize its effectiveness, the reinforcement must be __________ withheld. One problem with extinction is that its use may produce a temporary ________ in the target behavior
previously reinforced
consistently
increase
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A contingency contract is a formal written agreement between two or more parties about the behaviors that are to be modified and the _______ that will follow those behaviors.
rewards and punishments
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A token economy is a structured environment in which desirable behaviors are increased by reinforcing them with ________ reinforcers (tokens) that can be exchanged for ________ reinforcers, while undesirable behaviors are decreased by removing or withholding reinforcers.
generalized secondary
back-up (primary)
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Function-based interventions are derived from the results of a functional behavioral assessment, which identifies the characteristics of the target behavior and its __________.
antecedents and consequences
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You would conduct a functional behavioral assessment to:
A.identify an examinee's strengths and weaknesses with regard to a specific content domain
B.identify the antecedents and consequences that control or maintain a specific behavior
C.determine the expectations of others (e.g., parents or teachers) regarding a child's performance
D.determine the knowledge and skills required to perform a job or task successfully
B
As its name implies, a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is conducted to identify the functions of a behavior. An FBA may identify the environmental factors (antecedents and consequences) that control the target behavior.
Answer A: An assessment test may be used to identify an examinee's strengths and weaknesses with regard to a specific content domain.
Answer C: A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person's expectations about another person influences the person to behave in ways that confirm the expectation. A self-fulfilling prophecy demonstrates how a teacher that has high expectations for a student's performance will result in the student performing well.
Answer D: A job analysis is used to determine the knowledge and skills required to perform a job or task successfully.
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A mother has been giving her 3-year-old son a hug whenever he says "please" following a request. She decides to stop reinforcing her son in this way. Right after she stops hugging her son, she can expect that the frequency with which he says "please" will:
A.quickly decrease
B.slowly decrease
C.temporarily increase
D.stay the same
C
When reinforcement for a previously reinforced response is removed, there is often a temporary "extinction burst" (increase in response) before it begins to decrease.
Answer A: Removal of reinforcement following a behavior leads to a gradual, not immediate, extinction of the behavior.
Answer B: Removal of reinforcement following a behavior ordinarily leads to a gradual decrease (extinction) of the behavior. However, there is often an extinction burst immediately following the removal of the reinforcer, which precedes the decrease in the behavior.
Answer D: Removal of reinforcement following a behavior will typically lead to a gradual extinction of that behavior.
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During the initial stages of a behavior change intervention, verbal or nonverbal prompts may be needed to evoke the desired behavior. However, after the behavior is established, the prompts should be gradually removed. The gradual removal of prompts is referred to as:
A.blocking
B.shaping
C.thinning
D.fading
D
The term "fading" is used to describe the gradual removal of a prompt.
Answer A: Blocking occurs once an association has been made between a CS and US which prevents future pairing between the US and a second neutral stimulus. Because there is already an association between a CS and a US, the presence of the CS blocks an association being made between a new neutral stimulus and US when the CS and the new neutral stimulus are presented together prior to the US.
Answer B: Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. When utilizing shaping, reinforcement is provided only for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired one.
Answer C: A reduction in positive reinforcement (e.g., switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule) is referred to as thinning.
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An operant technique in which all opportunities for positive reinforcement are made unavailable for a specified period of time following the performance of an undesirable behavior in order to reduce that behavior is known as:
A.response cost
B.overcorrection
C.time-out
D.classical extinction
C
Time-out is also known as "time-out from positive reinforcement" and involves removing all reinforcement for a specified period of time following a behavior in order to decrease or eliminate that behavior.
Answer A: Response cost is a form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer following a behavior to reduce that behavior.
Answer B: Overcorrection involves a combination of restitution (having the individual "fix" the negative consequences of his/her behavior) and positive practice (having the individual practice alternative behaviors).
Answer D: Classical extinction is the elimination of a classically conditioned response (CR) by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
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A chimpanzee pushes a button to turn on a tone. Once the tone sounds, the chimpanzee pulls a lever to turn on a green light. Once the green light is on, the chimpanzee slides a door open to obtain a treat. Which of the following techniques was used to teach this sequence of behaviors to the chimpanzee?
A.Forward conditioning
B.Differential reinforcement
C.Shaping
D.Chaining
D
Chaining is used to establish a complex sequence of behaviors (i.e., a "behavioral chain") like the one described in this question.
Answer A: In classical conditioning, forward conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented before the unconditioned stimulus (US). In delay conditioning, the CS precedes and overlaps with presentation of the US; in trace conditioning, the CS is presented and terminated before the presentation of the US.
Answer B: Differential reinforcement combines positive reinforcement with extinction and involves reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring the target behavior.
Answer C: Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. When utilizing shaping, reinforcement is provided only for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired one.
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Differential reinforcement is best conceptualized as which of the following?
A.A combination of punishment and positive reinforcement
B.A combination of extinction and positive reinforcement
C.A straightforward application of positive reinforcement
D.A straightforward application of negative reinforcement
B
Differential reinforcement combines positive reinforcement with extinction and involves reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring the target behavior. In other words, desirable behaviors are positively reinforced while the target behavior is extinguished.
Answer A: Differential reinforcement does not utilize punishment. Punishment is the application or removal of a stimulus following a behavior in order to reduce the behavior. In differential reinforcement, the target behavior is ignored (to extinguish the behavior) while the alternative behaviors are reinforced.
Answer C: Differential reinforcement is not a straightforward application of positive reinforcement since the target behaviors are extinguished utilizing components of classical conditioning.
Answer D: Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus following a behavior to increase the target behavior. Differential reinforcement utilizes positive, not negative, reinforcement.
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The technique known as "overcorrection" consists of:
A.education, behavior rehearsal, and generalization
B.positive punishment, positive practice, and generalization
C.restitution, positive practice, and physical guidance
D.restitution, behavior rehearsal, and differential reinforcement
C
Overcorrection is usually classified as a type of positive punishment and involves applying a penalty following an undesirable behavior in order to eliminate it. It involves having individuals correct the consequences of their behavior (restitution) and practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). It also involves physical guidance.
Answer A: Education, behavior rehearsal, and generalization are not components of overcorrection.
Answer B: Overcorrection is considered a type of positive punishment and the technique itself includes positive practice; however, generalization is a not a component of overcorrection.
Answer D: Behavior rehearsal and differential reinforcement are not components of overcorrection.
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"Grandma's rule" (e.g., "You must eat your string beans before you can go outside to play.") is most similar to which of the following techniques?
A.Premack principle
B.Escape conditioning
C.Response cost
D.Negative practice
A
Use of a high-frequency behavior (going out to play) to reinforce a low-frequency behavior (eating string beans) to increase the low-frequency behavior is referred to as the Premack principle.
Answer B: Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior; that is, the organism engages in the behavior in order to escape the negative reinforcer.
Answer C: Response cost is a type of negative punishment when a reinforcer is removed following a behavior in order to reduce that behavior.
Answer D: Negative practice involves the repetition of undesirable behavior to the point that it becomes aversive to the individual.
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In a token economy, the tokens are:
A.back-up reinforcers
B.generalized secondary reinforcers
C.discriminative stimuli
D.unconditioned stimuli
B
A token economy is a structured environment in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items, activities, etc. Tokens are generalized secondary reinforcers that have value only because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.
Answer A: The items and activities that can be "purchased" with tokens are back-up (primary) reinforcers.
Answer C: Discriminative stimuli signal whether or not a particular behavior will be reinforced.
Answer D: Tokens are conditioned (not unconditioned) stimuli since they have no reinforcing value on their own, but are reinforcing only because they can be exchanged for desirable items, activities, etc.
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