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Classical Conditioning - Unconditioned Stimulus
Stimulus which naturally elicits a response (meat)
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Classical Conditioning - Unconditioned Response
The natural response to a stimulus (salivation)
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Classical Conditioning - Conditioned Stimulus
An introduced neutral stimulus (the bell)
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Classical Conditioning - Conditioned Response
The response paired after conditioning (Bell creating salivation)
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The Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
Impacted by several factors including the temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and or the unconditioned stimulus, the number of conditioning trials, and pre-exposure to the CS or US
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The Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning - Temporal Relationship Between the CS and US - Delay Conditioning
Involves presenting the CS so that it precedes and overlaps presentation of the US
Optimal time interval between the CS and US is generally most effective at .5 seconds
Most effective procedure for establishing a conditioned response
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The Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning - Temporal Relationship Between the CS and US - Trace Conditioning
Entails presenting and terminating the CS prior to presenting the US
Produces a weaker CR than does delay conditioning
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The Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning - Temporal Relationship Between the CS and US - Simultaneous Conditioning
Involves presenting and withdrawing the CS and US at the same time
Less effective than trace conditioning
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The Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning - Temporal Relationship Between the CS and US - Backward Conditioning
Entails presenting the US prior to the CS
Does not usually produce a CR
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Classical Conditioning - Classical Extinction
The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response as the result of repeated presentation of the CS alone
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Classical Conditioning - Stimulus Generalization
responses to a conditioned response not only to the CS but also stimuli that are similar to the CS
A dog conditioned to respond to a 500hz tone will also respond to similar tones. The further the tone from the original the less the response
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Classical Conditioning - Stimulus Discrimination
The opposite of stimulus generalization and refers to the ability to discriminate between the CS and similar stimuli and respond only to the CS with a CR.
Established through discrimination training, which involves selective reinforcement and extinction
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Classical Conditioning - Experimental Neurosis
Exhibiting uncharacteristic behaviors when unable to discriminate stimuli
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Classical Conditioning - Higher-Order Conditioning
When a second neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a previously conditioned stimulus and the second neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response
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John B. Watson
The father of behaviorism - rejected use of introspection as the primary method of psychology and argued that the only appropriate domain for psychologists is the study of observable, measurable behaviors
Best known for his Little Albert classical conditioning experiment where he established a phobia in an 11-month old boy (paired a startling loud noise with a white rat resulting in the rat producing a fear response). This also produced stimulus generalization to where Albert feared other white furry objects such as a white rabbit, cotton, and a Santa Claus mask.
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Pavlov found that, when a neutral stimulus was paired with a stimulus that naturally elicited salivation, eventually, the neutral stimulus also produced a salivation response. He referred to the stimulus that naturally elicited salivation (or other target response) as the ________ stimulus and the response it elicited as the _______ response. He called the neutral stimulus the _________ stimulus and the response it produced after conditioning trials the _______ response.
unconditioned
unconditioned
conditioned
conditioned
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The effectiveness of classical conditioning depends on several factors including the temporal relationship between the CS and the US. _________ conditioning is the most effective type of conditioning and involves presenting the CS so that it ________ presentation of the US. In contrast, _________ conditioning, which involves presenting the US before the CS, is rarely effective for establishing a conditioned response.
delay
precedes and overlaps
Backward
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Repeated presentation of the CS without the US produces extinction of the _________. Pavlov's investigations of extinction revealed that a weak CR is often elicited by the CS following extinction trials. He named this phenomenon _______ and argued that it proved that once something is learned, it is never entirely forgotten. Pavlov also found that, following conditioning trials, the dogs in his study exhibited _______ generalization, which occurred when a dog responded with a CR to stimuli that were similar to the original __________. He discovered that difficult discriminations between stimuli (e.g., between a circle and an ellipse) produced ________.
conditioned response
spontaneous recovery
stimulus
conditioned stimulus
experimental neurosis
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________ conditioning occurs when an established CS is consistently presented following a new neutral stimulus so that the new neutral stimulus also produces a CR. In this situation, the CS is being treated as a(n) __________. _______ occurs when an association has been made between a CS and US, and the CS and a second neutral stimulus are then presented together prior to the US> In the situation, the second neutral stimulus does not produce a CR.
Higher-order
unconditioned stimulus
blocking
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Watson used classical conditioning to establish a phobia in an 11-month old bay name Albert. This involved pairing presentation of a white rat with a loud noise so that, eventually, the white rat alone elicited a ________. In this situation, the white rat was a(n) _________ stimulus, while the loud noise was a(n) ________. Following conditioning, Albert exhibited a great deal of __________: He responded with fear not only to the white rat but also to other white furry objects.
startle response
conditioned
unconditioned response
stimulus generalization
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Dr. Daniel Daggett presents Stimulus A along with a loud noise so that, eventually, a participant in his study reacts with a startle reaction whenever Stimulus A is presented alone. Dr. Daggett then pairs Stimulus B with Stimulus A so that Stimulus B also elicits a startle reaction when presented alone. This procedure is an example of:
A.stimulus generalization
B.higher-order conditioning
C.response generalization
D.shaping
B
In this situation, a conditioned (neutral) stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) so that the former eventually elicits a conditioned response (CR). Then a second conditioned (neutral) stimulus is paired with the original conditioned stimulus so that it also elicits the conditioned response (CR). This procedure is referred to as higher-order conditioning, and in the second step, involves treating the original conditioned stimulus like an unconditioned stimulus when it is paired with the second conditioned stimulus.
Answer A: Stimulus generalization occurs when a subject responds with a conditioned response (CR) not only to the conditioned stimulus (CS) but also to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
Answer C: Response generalization occurs when reinforcement of a target behavior results in an increase in other similar behaviors that were not reinforced.
Answer D: Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. When utilizing shaping, reinforcement is provided only for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired one.
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Rescorla and Wagner (1972) contend that "blocking" occurs because:
A.the second neutral stimulus does not provide new information about the US
B.one neutral stimulus is more salient that the other neutral stimulus
C.the new neutral stimulus is similar to the original CS
D.one of the neutral stimuli is "overshadowed" by the US
A
Blocking occurs when a new neutral stimulus and an established CS are presented together prior to the US. According to Rescorla and Wagner (1972), the new neutral stimulus does not elicit a CR when presented alone because it provides redundant information and an association between that stimulus and the US is not made.
Answer B: Overshadowing occurs when two neutral stimuli are repeatedly presented together prior to the unconditioned stimulus (US). Subsequent presentations of the two stimuli together produce a CR, but when the two stimuli are presented separately, only the stimulus that is more salient to the subject will produce a CR.
Answer C: When a new neutral stimulus is similar to the CS, stimulus generalization may result. Stimulus generalization occurs when an individual responds with a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Answer D: Unconditioned stimuli do not overshadow neutral stimuli. Overshadowing occurs when only one of two neutral stimuli that have been simultaneously paired with a US elicits a CR when presented separately; the stimulus that is more salient to the subject will produce a CR.
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In Watson's research, Little Albert's fear of white fur and cotton was the result of:
A.spontaneous recovery
B.higher-order conditioning
C.stimulus generalization
D.experimental neurosis
C
Watson used classical conditioning to establish a fear reaction in Little Albert to a white rat. Subsequently, Albert exhibited a great deal of stimulus generalization, which occurs when a subject responds with a conditioned response (CR) not only to the conditioned stimulus (CS) but also to stimuli that are similar to the CS. Albert exhibited a fear response to other white furry objects including a white rabbit, cotton, and a Santa Claus mask.
Answer A: Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning, after it has been extinguished.
Answer B: Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously established CS serves as an unconditioned stimulus (US) to establish a conditioned response (CR) for a second neutral stimulus. The new neutral stimulus is paired with the established CS so that the new neutral stimulus produces a CR.
Answer D: Experimental neurosis refers to subjects' uncharacteristic behaviors that may include extreme restlessness, agitation, and unprovoked aggression, which may occur when subjects have difficulty with stimulus discriminations.
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In one series of studies, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate in response to a black square but not in response to a light grey square. Subsequently, when the dogs were shown a medium grey square, they exhibited which of the following?
A.Overshadowing
B.Spontaneous recovery
C.Experimental neurosis
D.Learned helplessness
C
This question describes trials that require dogs to make difficult stimulus discriminations. Pavlov found that difficult stimulus discriminations produced experimental neurosis: uncharacteristic behaviors that included extreme restlessness, agitation, and unprovoked aggression.
Answer A: Overshadowing occurs when two neutral stimuli are repeatedly presented together prior to the unconditioned stimulus (US). Subsequent presentations of the two stimuli together produce a CR, but when the two stimuli are presented separately, only the stimulus that is more salient to the subject will produce a CR.
Answer B: Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning, after it has been extinguished.
Answer D: Learned helplessness refers to the tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment.
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To reduce a client's cigarette smoking, the client is exposed to several treatment sessions in which stale cigarette smoke is blown into his face soon after he begins to smoke a cigarette and this continues until he stops smoking. The smoke makes the client feel nauseous whenever it is blown into their face. Eventually, the client feels nauseous whenever he even thinks about smoking. In this situation, the stale cigarette smoke has acted as:
A.a conditioned stimulus
B.an unconditioned stimulus
C.a negative punisher
D.a negative reinforcer
B
In this situation, two stimuli are being "paired" in order to change the response that is elicited by one of the stimuli. The stale cigarette smoke naturally elicits nausea, so it is the unconditioned stimulus.
Answer A: The cigarette is the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this situation. By being paired with stale cigarette smoke, it eventually elicits nausea.
Answer C: Negative punishment occurs when the removal of a stimulus following a behavior decreases that behavior. A Skinnerian might describe the stale cigarette as a positive (not negative) punishment, which occurs when the application of a stimulus following a response decreases that response. However, as Skinnerian would not claim that a new response to smoking has been established, only that the person avoids cigarettes in order to avoid the punishment.
Answer D: With negative reinforcement, a behavior increases as the result of the withdrawal of a stimulus (reinforcer) following the behavior. Since the procedure in the question describes classical conditioning, answers "C" and "D" can be eliminated because punishers and reinforcers are associated with operant conditioning
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