EPPP - Lifespan Development - Domain Quiz

C

In their longitudinal research, Gottman and his colleagues investigated the factors that contribute to marital dissolution. Gottman's cascade theory of marital dissolution predicts that a couple's ability to resolve inevitable conflicts is the key to a lasting relationship.

• Answer A: Communication related to conflict rather than maturity level was the
• focus of this research.

Answer B: Social support was not identified as a major factor in marital dissolution.

Answer D: Need fulfillment was not identified as a factor in this research. Additional information about their research is provided in the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials.

B

This is an accurate description of the prediction of the hostile attribution bias, which was originally described by Dodge (1980). It predicts that aggressive children are more likely than nonaggressive children to interpret the ambiguous behaviors of peers as intentionally hostile and, therefore, to react to those peers with aggressive, hostile behaviors. The hostile attribution bias is believed to be due to deficits in social information processing.

C

A sudden loud noise (or being dropped) produces a startle reaction, which is called the Moro reflex.

Answer A: The Babkin reflex occurs in response to an object being placed against both of an infant's palms.

Answer B: The Darwinian (palmar) reflex occurs in response to placing an object in the infant's hand.

Answer D: The Babinski reflex is produced by tickling the middle of the soles of the infant's feet.

C

Abstract thinking occurs in the formal operational stage, the final stage in Piaget's stage model of cognitive development. It emerges at around age 11.

Answer A: Age 6 is in the preoperational stage, which does not include an abstract understanding of causation.

Answer B: Age 8 is in the concrete operational stage, which allows more sophisticated classification of information, but not deductive reasoning, which is the hallmark of abstract thought.

Answer D: Although age 15 is also considered to be in the formal operational stage, this is not the earliest time this is evident.

D

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development includes eight stages, with each stage being associated with a specific psychosocial crisis. The resolution of dealing with one's mortality is associated with the integrity vs. despair stage. This is the last of the eight stages.

Answer A: During early adulthood is the establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship. If such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result. This is representative of the intimacy vs. isolation stage. 

Answer B: The people one lives and works with are most important during the generativity vs. stagnation stage. A generative person exhibits a commitment to the well-being of future generations.

Answer C: Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence. A positive outcome within the identity vs. role confusion stage is reflected in a sense of personal identity and a direction for the future.

B

Adaptation involves building schemas as the result of direct interactions with the environment. It consists of the two processes known as assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process of interpreting the environment in terms of existing cognitive schemas, while accommodation is the process of altering existing schemas to fit new environmental experiences.

Answer A: Although Piaget used the term organization in his description of cognitive development, it refers to the internal rearrangement and integration of schemas.

Answer C: Decentration is a cognitive operation that contributes to the ability to conserve, which emerges during the concrete operational stage.

Answer D: Piaget used the term decalage to refer to developmental phenomena that are uniform for all children.

B

The semiotic function refers to the ability to make representations of symbols, objects, or words to stand for something, which occurs in the preoperational stage and extends from ages 2 to 7.

Answer A: Children in the concrete operational stage are capable of mental operations, which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information.

Answer C: During the sensorimotor stage, a child learns about objects and other people through the sensory information they provide (how they look, feel, and taste) and the actions that can be performed on them (sucking, grasping, hitting, etc.).

Answer D: A person in the formal operational stage is able to think abstractly and is capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which means that he or she can identify competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses.

B

Deferred imitation refers to copying the past behavior of someone else. Mental representation is also referred to as representational or symbolic thought and is the ability to hold an image in one's mind for a period beyond one's immediate experience. It develops at about 18 to 24 months of age and is responsible for the ability to engage in deferred imitation, use language, and participate in symbolic play.

Answer A: Transductive (precausal) reasoning is characteristic of the preoperational stage and reflects an incomplete understanding of cause and effect.

Answer C: Animistic thinking refers to the belief that inanimate objects have human characteristics and is characteristic of the preoperational stage of development.

Answer D: Piaget did not link self-recognition to the ability to engage in deferred imitation.

D

Erikson (1977) describes play as a function of the ego that allows children to master and control social and emotional experiences. Through play, children learn about themselves and their social environments.

Answer A: Play was described as an opportunity to release surplus energy by Spencer, Schiller, and other evolutionary theorists.

Answer B: Freud described children's play as the result of a "repetition compulsion".

Answer C: Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development describes knowledge as socially constructed and conceptualizes symbolic play as an opportunity to practice behaviors in situations that require less precision and accuracy than would be required in reality.

B

The child in this question is using a single word to communicate the meaning of a whole sentence, which is called holophrastic speech and typically occurs from one to two years of age.

Answer A: Telegraphic speech involves stringing two or more words together to make a sentence (e.g., "want milk"). 

Answer C: Underextension occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations.

Answer D: Overextension occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events than is appropriate.

B

Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional) that each consist of two stages. The conventional level of moral development is characterized by support for and adherence to existing social rules and laws.

Answer A: Preconventional moral judgments are typical of children aged 4 through 10 and reflect a desire to avoid punishment and satisfy their own needs.

Answer C: Moral judgments at the postconventional level are based on social contracts, democratically accepted laws, and individual principles of conscience.

Answer D: Autonomous is one of Piaget's stages of moral development. For the exam, be familiar with the three levels and six stages so that you can answer questions like this one (see the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials).

B

The effects of maternal employment on children are mediated by several factors. A consistent finding of the research is that children with working mothers have more egalitarian views about gender roles and less traditional stereotypes of male and female activities than do children with mothers who are full-time homemakers.

Answer A: The effects of maternal employment on social adjustment seem to be related to gender and SES: Some studies suggest that girls in terms of social adjustment have higher levels of self-esteem and independence when their mothers work outside the home, while boys (especially middle-class boys) may exhibit some problems in social relationships (e.g., they are at higher risk for "acting-out" behaviors).

Answer C: The research has generally found that maternal employment is not associated with a decrease in the time that mothers spend with their children or with the affection that mothers give their children.

Answer D: There is evidence that the effects of maternal employment on children's academic achievement are related to SES: Some studies have found that maternal employment is associated with higher academic achievement for boys from low-income families but lower academic achievement for boys from higher-income families.

A

• Piaget distinguished between four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Children in the preoperational stage are unable to conserve, or understand
• that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions. Sarah demonstrates this with the belief that there is more liver on her plate when it is cut into small pieces. 

Answer B: Eve has developed conservation and is, therefore, in the concrete (or perhaps formal) operational stage.

Answer C: Sarah demonstrates the preoperational stage since she is unable to conserve. 

Answer D: Eve has developed conservation and is, therefore, in the concrete (or perhaps formal) operational stage.

C

Research has confirmed a predictable pattern in age-related declines in memory and other cognitive abilities. Recent long-term (secondary) memory is most affected by increasing age, followed by working memory.

Answer A: Sensory memory is relatively unaffected by increasing age.

Answer B: Memory span is relatively stable over the lifespan, as shown by data on digit span performance.

Answer D: Remote memory is generally preserved over the lifespan.

C

Phenotype refers to observable characteristics that are attributable to the individual's genotype (genetic make-up) and environment.

C

Harlow and Harlow (1969) found that contact (tactile) comfort was more important than feeding for the development of attachment. Their research was subsequently applied to attachment in human infants.

Answer A: Drive reduction was not part of this research.

Answer B: This was not a focus of the study.

Answer D: Response to infant signals was not a focus of this research.

D

Piaget distinguished between two stages of moral development: heteronomous and autonomous. The autonomous stage begins by age 10 or 11. Children in this stage base their judgments of behavior primarily on the intentions of the actor.

Answer A: Focusing on the consequences of an action is characteristic of the heteronomous stage.

Answer B: Focusing on relevant rules is more characteristic of the heteronomous than the autonomous stage.

Answer C: Considering their own emotional reactions is not characteristic of the autonomous stage.

B

At 17 months of age, most children are talking and walking, so Walter's developmental delays may be indicative of a serious problem. Referral to a physician to help pinpoint the causes of Walter's delays would be the appropriate course of action.

Answer A: Walter is showing developmental delay and therefore reassuring the family is not the correct action.

Answer C: Administering a screening test is not the best action in this case.

Answer D: Further family history is not relevant to this assessment.

A

The nativist approach is defined by an emphasis on universal biological factors. Chomsky is a well-known representative of this approach. He proposed an innate "language acquisition device" in which all children acquire language through exposure.

Answer B: Operant factors are behavioral, and are therefore opposite of the Chomsky factors.

Answer C: Modeling is an example of social learning, which is not in the Chomsky model.

Answer D: Cognitive development is not the best answer, as the Chomsky model is focused on the innate process of language development.

A

The "zone of proximal development" is a key concept in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development and refers to the gap between what the child can currently do alone and what he/she can do with the assistance of a more skilled person.

D

Prenatal malnutrition has its most severe impact during the later stages of prenatal development. The brain grows most rapidly during the final trimester, and prenatal malnutrition during this period is associated with a low brain weight and abnormalities in the organization of the brain's neurons.

C

Piaget stated that children do not begin to intentionally lie until age 7 or 8.

Answer A: Piaget stated that children younger than 7 lie spontaneously and unintentionally.

Answer B: Piaget stated that children do not begin to intentionally lie until age 7 or 8. Note, however, that subsequent research suggests that children as young as age 3 or 4 intentionally lie.

Answer D: This answer is not consistent with Piaget's identification of when intentional lying begins.

C

Two-word sentences are referred to as telegraphic speech, which is characteristic of children between the ages of 18 and 24 months and consists of the most important words (e.g., "my doll" and "give cake").

Answer A: Although first words can occur as early as 8 months, the emergence of telegraphic speech is not typical until 18 months.

Answer B: Telegraphic speech is not typical until 18 months of age. 

Answer D: After 24 months, there is an increasing growth of speech complexity. Two-word sentences are not typical in this age range.

D

The research indicates that sibling relationships often involve contradictions, but the combination of closeness and conflict seems to be particularly characteristic of siblings during preadolescence.

A

Researchers use several techniques to study memory in infants including habituation-dishabituation. By three months of age, infants habituate to visual stimuli: they show a decreased response to the second presentation of a stimulus for periods up to 24 hours. This is interpreted as recognition of the stimulus.

C

Infantile amnesia refers to the inability to recall events that occurred prior to about age 3 or 4. Although early research suggested that infantile amnesia is absolute, subsequent studies indicate that older children, adolescents, and adults are often able to recall some events that took place prior to age 3 or 4.

B

The research has shown that older adults typically recall recent and remote events better than intermediate events. Greater recall of recent events (events that occurred in the last 20 years) is referred to as the retention function, while greater recall of events that occurred from about 10 to 30 years of age is referred to as the reminiscence bump (Rubin, Rahahl, & Poon, 1998).

A

Although attachment between a child and primary caregivers begins to develop in the first months of life, prolonged separation during the first six months does not ordinarily produce severe or long-term distress. Studies on early separation from parents or other primary caregivers have shown that it has the least detrimental effects on the child when it occurs prior to six months of age.

D

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol and affects multiple areas of development. The severity of the symptoms of FASD depends on the degree of prenatal exposure to alcohol. However, regardless of their severity, most symptoms are irreversible.

Answer A: There is no indication that nutritional interventions alleviate the symptoms.

Answer B: The course does not include improvement during any developmental period.

Answer C: Both behavioral and physical signs are irreversible.

D

Marcia distinguishes between four identity statuses that reflect the degree to which the individual has experienced an identity crisis and is committed to an identity. Identity foreclosure occurs when the individual has not experienced an identity crisis but has chosen an identity (e.g., career) that has been imposed by others.

Answer A: Identity moratorium occurs when the individual is experiencing an identity crisis and is actively exploring alternative identities.

Answer B: Identity diffusion occurs when the individual has not yet experienced an identity crisis and is not committed to a particular identity.

Answer C: Identity achievement occurs when the individual has resolved the identity crisis and is committed to an identity.

B

Cocaine use by pregnant women increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. For babies who survive, it is associated with several physical and behavioral abnormalities, including low birth weight, a piercing cry, an exaggerated startle response, irritability and hypersensitivity, and abnormal response to the sound and sight of caregivers.

D

This is the best overall conclusion that can be drawn from the research on early physical maturation. Early maturation has been linked to both positive and negative consequences for boys but mostly negative consequences for girls.

B

Parents categorized as "dismissing" describe their relations with parents in positive terms but are unable to recall specific examples that support their descriptions. They most often have children who exhibit avoidant attachment in the Strange Situation.

Answer A: Parents categorized as "autonomous" on the Adult Attachment Interview are most likely to have children who exhibit a secure attachment pattern. In response to interview questions, these parents describe their childhood relationships with parents as either negative or positive and are able to provide specific examples that support their descriptions.

Answer C: Parents categorized as "preoccupied" often have resistant children. These parents describe their childhood relationships in negative or confused ways but are unable to provide specific examples to support their descriptions.

Answer D: The children of "unresolved/disorganized" parents often exhibit a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern.

A

Increasing age is associated with decrements in a number of cognitive and physical abilities. Although explicit memory shows age-related declines, implicit memory is relatively unaffected by increasing age.

Answer B: Dichotic listening assesses divided attention which does show age-related declines.

Answer C: Slowing in the speed of processing and responding is one of the most consistent findings of research investigating the impact of increasing age on cognitive abilities.

Answer D: Visual acuity begins to decline somewhat in the 40s and then shows a rapid decline between 60 and 80.

B

Auditory localization refers to the ability to orient toward the direction of a sound, which is observed at birth, seems to disappear between 2 and 4 months of age, and then reappears and improves during the rest of the first year of life.

Answer A: This is present at birth and does not develop in a linear fashion.

Answer C: The time frame for the disappearance of this ability is 2-4 months.

Answer D: Auditory localization is present to some degree at birth.

D

This question describes the ability to recognize that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer in view. Piaget referred to this ability as the object concept (or object permanence) and found that it begins to develop between 8 and 12 months of age.

Answer A: Piaget was not concerned with working memory.

Answer B: Piaget was not concerned with metamemory.

Answer C: This answer has a similar name, but Piaget's theories were about cognitive development and not attachment. Be familiar with the names of Piaget's stages, the ages at which they occur, and the major milestones that occur during each stage,

D

Children of lesbian and heterosexual parents do not differ in any consistent way with regard to psychological adjustment, interpersonal relationships, gender identity, or sexual orientation.

B

Although play, by definition, does not have a purpose, it serves important functions related to a child's physical, intellectual, social, and emotional development.

Answer A: This describes sociodramatic play and does not apply to all types of play.

Answer C: Play does serve important functions related to a child's development. 

Answer D: This is true about some types of play only and, therefore, is not the best answer of those provided.

C

The behaviors that contribute to father-child attachment are similar to a "playmate", according to current research.

Answer A: Factors in the mother-child bond differ from that of the father and relate to nurturance and caregiving.

Answer B: Authority is not a factor in bonding.

Answer D: Maternal presence or absence is not a factor in bonding with the father.

D

There is evidence that fostering empathy (e.g., by helping the child recognize the consequences of his/her behavior for the target of the aggression) and helping the child identify alternative behaviors is useful, especially for younger children.

Answer A: Punishment (consistent or inconsistent) tends to increase aggressiveness.

Answer B: Ignoring aggressive behaviors is usually ineffective. Reinforcing prosocial behaviors is more useful for instilling prosocial behaviors than for reducing aggressiveness.

Answer C: The "catharsis hypothesis" does not appear to be valid.

B

Patterns of criticism and praise by teachers are usually gender-related: Boys are praised more by teachers for their ability, while girls are more likely to receive praise for their effort.

D

According to Piaget, the preoperational stage is characterized by the development of the symbolic (semiotic) function, which permits language use, symbolic play, and deferred imitation. This is characteristic of children ages 2 through 7.

Answer A: Conservation refers to knowledge that physical properties of objects remain invariant with transformations that do not involve addition or subtraction. Such knowledge is acquired between the ages of 7 and 11 years during the concrete operational period.

Answer B: The object concept develops during the sensorimotor stage, which is characteristic of children from birth to two years.

Answer C: Formal operations are characteristic of the final (formal operational) stage of cognitive development.

B

Patterson's model of aggression in children takes into account environment and behavior. The usual target of intervention is the behavior of parents, teaching skills, and alternative disciplinary techniques.

D

Erikson's autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage occurs from 1 to 3 years of age. Successful resolution of the conflicts of this stage results in a sense of self-control (autonomy), while failure leads to shame and doubt (you can find additional information in the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials).

Answer A: This is characteristic of the identity vs. identity confusion stage which occurs in adolescence.

Answer B: This is characteristic of the industry vs. inferiority stage which occurs from ages 6 to 11 years.

Answer C: This is characteristic of the basic trust vs. mistrust stage which occurs from birth to 1 year of age.

C

A child's first words are most likely to be social or functional expressions such as hi, bye-bye, or thanks; names for objects that are permanent, familiar, and usually movable such as dada or blanket; and action words such as push or fall. Words representing sensations or feelings such as "cold" are likely to appear later in the child's linguistic development.

Answer A: "Fall" is an action word and is likely to be a first word.

Answer B: "Bye-bye" is a social expression and is likely to be one of a child's first words.

Answer D: "Cookie" is the name for a permanent, familiar, and movable object and is the type of word that is likely to be one of a child's first words.

B

Separation anxiety usually first appears between the ages of 6 to 8 months of age and is, therefore, the earliest developmental milestone in the choices provided.

Answer A: Children typically pull themselves to a standing position by holding onto the furniture by 9 to 10 months of age.

Answer C: Symbolic play usually begins around 11 to 12 months of age.

Answer D: Children usually say their first recognizable words at about 12 months of age

B

The sixth stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development is the "morality of individual principles of conscience" which are considered universal in application

Answer A: This is accurate of Kohlberg's conventional stage of morality. 

Answer C: This is accurate of Kohlberg's conventional stage of morality. 

Answer D: This is accurate of Kohlberg's pre-conventional stage of morality.

B

Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis that must be appropriately resolved in order for healthy growth and maturation to occur. The stage of initiative vs. guilt begins around age three. Raymond's age and behaviors, including increasing locomotion, imagination, curiosity, and exploration suggest he is in this stage.

Answer A: Autonomy vs. shame is the second stage of psychosocial development and occurs between the ages of 1 and 3 years.

Answer C: The stage of trust vs. mistrust is the first stage of psychosocial development.

Answer D: Industry vs. inferiority is the fourth stage of psychosocial development and usually begins at around age six.

D

According to Piaget, much of the cognitive development that occurs during the sensorimotor stage is the result of circular reactions, in which the child repeats or reproduces a pleasurable or interesting experience. Tertiary circular reactions predominate from ages 12 to 18 months and involve varying an original or usual action on an object to see what happens.

Answer A: Piaget considered reflexes to be the "building blocks" of cognitive development from birth to 1 month.

Answer B: Primary circular reactions predominate from ages 1 to 4 months. They involve simple motor habits that center around the baby's own body (e.g., thumb sucking).

Answer C: Secondary circular reactions predominate from ages 4 to 8 months and are actions involving other people or objects.

C

Parental divorce can have substantial long-term consequences for children (e.g. Wallerstein, 2000). For some children, the negative impact of divorce is not apparent until the child reaches adolescence or early adulthood. Initially, this "sleeper effect" was found for girls who seemed well-adjusted as children following the divorce of their parents but were at increased risk for antisocial behaviors, low self-esteem, and More recently this has also been noted in boys who exhibit early sexual activity during adolescence and negative attitudes toward marriage as adults.

B

A critical period is a limited period of time in which certain learning or experiences must occur in order for normal development to take place. There is evidence that, in humans, there is a critical period for language acquisition.

Answer A: Researchers interested in early development distinguish between critical and sensitive periods. A sensitive period is an interval of time when certain behaviors are more easily learned or acquired or when the organism is especially receptive to certain types of experience. Sensitive periods are more flexible than critical periods.

Answer C: The term refractory period is used to describe the interval of time after a stimulus during which response to a second stimulus is slowed or is not possible.

Answer D: Incubation period has several meanings. One definition is the time interval between exposure to disease and the development of symptoms of that disease.

A

Children make a number of predictable errors during the process of language acquisition. Overextension occurs when a child uses a word to describe a wider range of objects or events than is appropriate.

Answer B: Overgeneralization occurs when the child extends grammatical rules to words that are an exception to the rule (e.g., adds "ed" to "go" to form the past tense).

Answer C: Expansion refers to an adult's response to a child's utterance that elaborates on what the child has said.

Answer D: It is overextension (not extension) that describes Mayen's inappropriate use of the word "juice".

C

In Ainsworth's Strange Situation the anxious-avoidant infant is associated with a caregiver who is impatient, unresponsive, and may be over-stimulating.

Answer A: The disorganized attachment pattern is more likely to be seen with a caregiver who has been aggressive, while a moody inconsistent caregiver is usually associated with an anxious ambivalent pattern in the infant.

Answer B: Autonomous is not an attachment pattern described by Ainsworth.

Answer D: There are two types of insecure attachment: anxious-avoidant (associated with an impatient, unresponsive, and possibly over-stimulating caregiver), and anxious ambivalent (associated with a moody, inconsistent, and sometimes indifferent caregiver). Anxious insecure does not give enough specific information to determine the likely caregiving pattern. The caregiver who is aggressive is most likely to have an infant who responds with a disorganized pattern.

D

The term "identity crisis" is now used by a number of psychologists (especially those interested in adolescent development). Erikson coined the term "identity crisis" and described it as the most important psychosocial crisis faced by human beings. He also identified adolescence as the time when the search for an identity is most intense.

B

Several consistent gender differences in conversation style have been documented. Women are more likely to ask questions during a conversation, and men tend to talk for longer periods of time, interrupt more frequently, and make more eye contact.

C

Wisdom and integrity are the outcomes of successful resolution of the psychosocial crises of the final ego integrity vs. despair stage in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Answer A: A sense of accomplishment is the successful outcome of the generativity vs. stagnation stage which occurs in mid-adulthood.

Answer B: A sense of personal control is the successful outcome of the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage which occurs from about ages 1 to 3.

Answer D: A coherent sense of identity is the successful outcome of the identity vs. role confusion stage which occurs in adolescence.

A

The Montessori Method was originally developed for children with an intellectual disability. Maria Montessori believed that learning is accomplished primarily through the senses and, therefore, advocated incorporating instructional techniques that make use of multiple sensory modalities.

B

Ainsworth developed the strange situation as a method for studying the quality of attachment in infants. It involves a series of events in which the child is separated from and reunited with his/her caregiver

C

Research on early attachment has identified four basic attachment patterns - secure, insecure/ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented. The behavior described in this question is characteristic of babies with secure attachment.

Answer A: A baby with insecure/ambivalent attachment is very distressed when separated from his/her mother but is angry and resistant to contact when she returns.

Answer B: A baby with insecure/avoidant attachment shows little distress when separated from his/her mother and ignores or avoids her when she returns.

Answer D: Stable is not one of the four types of attachment patterns identified by researchers.

A

Children who are actively rejected by peers exhibit a number of negative social behaviors and overall have worse social outcomes.

Answer B: Being neglected by peers has less of a negative effect than peer rejection and neglected children are more likely to experience an improvement in their peer status when they change social groups (e.g., change schools).

Answer C: Outcomes between these two groups are not similar.

Answer D: There is no distinction between long-term and short-term outcomes in the research findings.

D

Social referencing refers to relying on the emotional response of another person (e.g., caregiver) to decide how to respond in an ambiguous situation. This is demonstrated in the visual cliff situation, in which a baby's willingness to cross the visual cliff depends on his/her mother's facial expression.

Answer A: Habituation has not been used to study social referencing.

Answer B: Pattern recognition has not been used to study social referencing.

Answer C: Mobiles have not been used to study social referencing.

A

Gilligan points out that Kohlberg's original research participants were limited to males. Based on her research, Gilligan concludes that the moral judgments of females are often distinguished by concerns related to caring, compassion, and responsibility to others.

D

Bem's gender schema theory combines social learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory and focuses on the role of gender schemas, which are cognitive structures of masculinity and femininity that influence how the child interprets the world.

Answer A: Psychosexual crises are a focus of Freud's theory of gender-role identity development.

Answer B: Rewards and punishments are not central to Bem's theory.

Answer C: The role of early object relations in the development of gender identity is of concern to feminist object relations theorists.

D

Men with Klinefelter syndrome have an extra X chromosome. Symptoms of this disorder include low testosterone levels and infertility, breast development, and reduced body and facial hair.

A

Vision is the least well-developed sense at birth. In terms of visual acuity, newborns see at 20 feet what an adult with normal vision sees at 200 feet. The infant's senses develop rapidly in the first few months of life.

Answer B: Audition is a fully developed sense at birth.

Answer C: Taste is not the least developed sense at birth.

Answer D: Smell is a fully developed sense at birth.

B

Presbyopia occurs when the lens of the eye loses its ability to focus on objects that are close. Many people begin to experience presbyopia in their mid-40s.

D

Episodic memory is memory for personally experienced events and is the first aspect of long-term memory that shows age-related declines.

Answer A: This answer should have been easy to eliminate since sensory memory is not a type of long-term memory.

Answer B: Semantic memory is less affected by normal aging than is episodic memory.

Answer C: Procedural memory is relatively unaffected by normal aging.

B

Recent long-term memory is the aspect of memory that is most affected by normal aging. Reduced use of effective encoding strategies is the primary cause of age-related deficits in recent long-term memory. Older adults benefit from training in the use of memory strategies, which improve encoding.

Answer A: Decreased memory storage has not been noted with age.

Answer C: Decreased attention and concentration is not an expected result of normal aging.

Answer D: Comprehension is relatively preserved in normal aging.

D

Code-switching refers to the alternation between languages during a conversation. It is used by bilingual speakers for several purposes - e.g., to establish rapport with a listener or to better communicate one's attitude toward the listener.

Answer A: Semantic bootstrapping is a theory of child language acquisition that does not include code-switching.

Answer B: Hypothetical-deductive reasoning is a higher-level cognitive skill observed in the formal operations period of Piaget's theory.

Answer C: Code-switching is not a memory strategy.

D

Werner (1993) identified several factors that contribute to resilience in high-risk infants, including: (1) fewer stressors following birth, (2) stable support from a parent or other caregiver, and (3) an easy temperament.

D

Scaffolding is a key concept in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development. It refers to the temporary support and assistance that adults and more knowledgeable and skilled peers provide to a learner and includes modeling appropriate responses, simplifying a task so that it is more achievable, and providing instructions and cues. This helps the child progress within the zone of proximal development.

Answer A: Although Vygotsky recognized the role of biological maturation in cognitive development, scaffolding refers to social factors.

Answer B: Assistance within the zone of proximal development might include modeling effective memory strategies, but this is not the best answer of those given.

Answer C: Attachment is not a focus of Vygotsky's theory.

B

Information processing theories conceptualize the human mind as a computer and focus on mental operations. In this view, cognitive development is due to changes in mental capacity and increasing sophistication in the use of relevant rules and strategies.

Answer A: In contrast to Piagetians, information processing theorists are not interested in stages of cognitive development.

Answer C: Social interactions are central to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory but are not a focus for information processing theorists.

Answer D: Information processing theorists view development as continuous and do not propose that it occurs only during critical periods.

D

Several parental behaviors have been linked to an increased risk for juvenile delinquency. A consistent finding about antisocial behavior in adolescents is that it is predicted by low parental warmth, high parental conflict, and inconsistent discipline. Of the parenting styles listed in the answers, these parental behaviors are most characteristic of the rejecting/neglecting style.

Answer A: The authoritarian parenting style is characterized by high demands and low responsiveness. This answer is not as accurate as response D.

Answer B: The authoritative style is nurturing, responsive and supportive, with firm limits. This is not consistent with findings noted in explanation for response D.

Answer C: The permissive/nondirective parenting style is opposite of the findings noted in response D.

C

Kubler-Ross (1969) proposed that people progress through a predictable sequence of stages when facing their own death or other serious loss. The five stages, in order, are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

C

Levinson's model identifies several stages and transitional periods. The mid-life transition occurs between the ages of 40 and 45 and is characterized by a realization that the dream is not satisfying and/or will not be accomplished.

Answer A: Following the dream (goal or vision for the future) is characteristic of the "entry life structure for early adulthood" stage, which occurs from ages 22 to 28.

Answer B: Formulation of the dream is characteristic of the "early adult transition," which occurs from age 17 to 22.

Answer D: Realization of the dream is characteristic of the "culmination of early adult life structure" stage, which occurs from ages 33 to 45.

C

Hetherington (1993) and others have found that children's adjustment to parental remarriage is affected by several factors including the child's age. Individuals in early adolescence have the most difficulty adapting to the remarriage of a parent because the introduction of a stepparent at this time may exacerbate the normal adjustment problems associated with this age.

C

Researchers interested in the impact of television on children have attempted to determine the degree to which children of different ages distinguish between fact and fantasy. Children begin to understand that characters on television are actors who are playing roles by 7 to 9 years of age.

Answer A: The belief that people can see into their homes is characteristic of children ages 3 and 4.

Answer B: The belief that people who die on TV are really dead is also characteristic of younger children.

Answer D: Children ages 7 to 9 understand that people on TV aren't the characters they are playing, but they don't believe that the people on TV "aren't alive."

B

The self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal) effect predicts that other people's expectations about our performance affects our actual performance. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that grade school teachers' expectations about students had a self-fulfilling prophecy effect - i.e., when teachers were told that the test scores of some students indicated they would be "academic spurters" (even though the students had been randomly selected), those students had unusual gains in academic performance, apparently because they were treated differently by the teachers.

Answers A and C: This does not describe the self-fulfilling prophecy effect.

Answer D: This sounds like Rosenhan's pseudopatient study.

D

Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) occurs when a type of herpes virus is passed from an infected pregnant woman to her fetus through the placenta. These are the most common symptoms of congenital CMV.

Answer A: These are signs of HIV infection in childhood.

Answer B: These symptoms are associated with prenatal malnutrition but not with congenital CMV.

Answer C: These are some of the symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is the most severe form of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).

C

Piaget distinguished between four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Piaget's concrete operational stage extends from 7 to 11 years of age.

Answer A: The sensorimotor stage extends from birth to 2 years of age.

Answer B: The preoperational stage extends from 2 to 7 years of age.

Answer D: The formal operational stage extends from 11 years on.

B

Surveys have identified a number of demographic characteristics that are associated with risk for divorce, including marrying at a younger age and having a child before marriage or within 7 months of marriage.

Answer A: Although women who come from a single-parent home are at higher risk for divorce, marrying at an older age is associated with a lower risk.

Answer C: Although having a lower level of education is associated with a higher risk for divorce, marrying at an older age is not.

Answer D: Although cohabitating with the partner prior to marriage is associated with a higher risk for divorce, a higher level of education is not.

C

Scarr (1992) distinguishes between three types of genotype-environment correlation that help explain how heredity influences the types of environment to which a person is exposed. This answer describes active genotype-environment correlation, which is also known as niche picking.

Answer A: This answer describes passive genotype-environment correlation.

Answer B: This answer describes evocative genotype-environment correlation.

Answer D: This answer describes canalization.

B

The research findings of short- and long-term effects of Head Start and similar programs differ. While children in the early research on Head Start showed positive effects on IQ, in subsequent longitudinal studies, IQ gains usually declined over time. Beneficial effects on academic achievement and success, however, persist into adolescence and early adulthood.

C

The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) assesses the examinee's childhood relationships with his/her mother and father and categorizes the examinee's attachment style as autonomous, preoccupied, or dismissing. Examinees classified as dismissing provide inconsistent and incoherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with parents.

Answer A: Examinees classified as autonomous provide coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships.

Answer B: Examinees classified as preoccupied become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parents and may be preoccupied with a parent.

Answer D: Distant is not one of the AAI categories.

B

In the context of language acquisition, bootstrapping refers to mechanisms that children use to facilitate language acquisition. Syntactic bootstrapping refers to a child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words.

C

Knowing that the Moro reflex is also known as the startle reflex would have helped you identify that this is the correct answer.

Answer A: This describes the Babinski reflex.

Answer B: This describes the rooting reflex.

Answer D: This describes the stepping reflex.

A

The greater vulnerability of males is fairly consistent throughout the lifespan. For example, more males are stillborn or spontaneously aborted and are subsequently more vulnerable to physical and mental disorders that have been linked to biological factors.

B

While some studies have found that early exposure to painful medical procedures increases subsequent sensitivity to pain, research by Taddio and Katz (2005) suggests that this may be true only for full-term infants.

C

By two years of age, the brain has achieved about 80% of its adult weight. The growth of the brain during the first two years of life is due less to the addition of new neurons than to an increase in their size and interconnections and the formation of glial cells.

C

The Montessori method is characterized by the use of special materials designed to teach sense discrimination. For example, to facilitate the teaching of reading, large letters of the alphabet are covered with sandpaper. It was originally developed for intellectually disabled children, but has been shown to be effective for the general population and is used in preschool and in elementary and high school as well.

C

Code-switching refers to shifts between languages during the course of a conversation. It seems to serve several functions for bilingual and multilingual speakers. For example, it is sometimes used to express solidarity with one's culture.

B

Children between the ages of 3 and 6 are in the third stage of psychosexual development and psychosocial development. Freud referred to the third stage as the phallic stage and Erikson identified the conflict of this stage as involving initiative vs. guilt.

Answer A: Children between the ages of 1 and 3 years are in the second stage of psychosexual development and psychosocial development. Freud referred to the second stage as the anal stage and Erikson referred to the conflict associated with this stage as autonomy vs. shame.

Answer C: Children between the ages of 6 and 12 years are in the fourth stage of psychosexual development and psychosocial development. Freud named this the latency stage and Erikson described the conflict of this stage as involving industry vs. inferiority.

Answer D: Freud's final (fifth) stage of psychosexual development is the genital stage and is characteristic of adolescence. Erikson described the major conflict of adolescence as involving identity vs. identity (role) confusion.

B

Bronfenbrenner distinguishes between five interacting systems in describing the environmental influences on development - microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The child's family is a primary aspect of the microsystem (i.e., of the child's immediate environment).

Answer A: The target behaviors themselves are not addressed in Bronfenbrenner's model.

Answer C: The parents' support systems are part of the exosystem.

Answer D: Community resources are also part of the exosystem. Additional information about the Bronfenbrenner systems is provided in the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials.

A

Cross-sectional research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., Burr, 1970; Rollins and Cameron, 1974) identified a consistent pattern for marital satisfaction over the lifespan. The cross-sectional studies found the lowest reported levels of marital satisfaction (especially among women) during the middle adult years - i.e., among those who had been married for 11 to 30 years. This result was often attributed by the researchers to the presence of adolescents in the family. Note that more recent longitudinal studies have not entirely confirmed the earlier findings (e.g., Vallant and Vallant, 1993).

A

These are three of the six risk factors identified by Rutter: low SES, marital discord, large family size and overcrowding, paternal criminality, maternal psychiatric disorder, and being placed in foster care [Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children's responses to stress and disadvantage. In M. W. Garmezy and M. Rutter (Eds.).Stress, Coping, and Development in Children (Vol. 3), New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.]

Answer B: Paternal psychopathology and difficult temperament are not risk factors identified by Rutter.

Answer C: Racial/ethnic minority status was not identified by Rutter as a risk factor.

Answer D: Single-parent families and racial/ethnic minority status are not risk factors identified by Rutter.