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Attachment - Contact Comfort (Harlow & Harlow, 1969)
The pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent
Comes from research with rhesus monkeys --> wire mesh mother vs cloth mother --> monkeys always preferred the cloth mother
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Attachment - Bowlby - Internal Working Model
A mental representation of self and others that influences the child's future relationships
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Signs of Attachment - Social Referencing
About 6 months
Involves looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous situations.
a child's willingness to cross a "visual cliff" depends on his/her mother's facial expression. When the mother looks happy, the child is likely to cross. When the mother looks angry or afraid, the child is much less likely to cross
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Signs of Attachment - Separation Anxiety
Begins a t 6-8 months and peaks at 14-18 months
Severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from his or her primary caregiver
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Signs of Attachment - Stranger Anxiety
8-10 months and continues until about age 2
Infants become very anxious and fearful in the presence of a stranger, especially when a caregiver is not nearby or when the caregiver does not respond positively to the stranger.
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Secure Attachment
In the strange situation experiment, the baby explores the room and plays with toys in the room while the mother is present
The baby becomes mildly upset when the mother leaves and actively seeks contact with her when she returns
Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive to baby cues.
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Insecure (Anxious/Ambivalent)
In the strange situation experiment, the baby alternated between clinging and resisting the mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, and is ambivalent when the mother returns and may become angry and resist her attempt at physical contact.
Mothers are often moody and inconsistent in their caregiving (i.e., sometimes indifferent, at other times enthusiastic)
Can also be called insecure/resistant attachment
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
In the strange situation experiment, babies exhibit fear of their caregivers, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors (e.g., greeting mother when she returns but then turning away from her)
About 80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit this pattern
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Insecure (Anxious/Avoidant Attachment)
In the strange situation experiment, the baby interacts very little with the mother, shows little distress when she leaves the room, and avoids or ignores her when she returns. Babies react to their mothers and strangers in a similar manner
Mothers are very impatient and unresponsive or, at the other extreme, provide their children with too much stimulation
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Early attachment predictions of future adjustment - insecure vs. secure
Compared to insecurely attached peers, securely attached infants are more curious and less dependent on adults at 4 and 5 years of age, have more positive social interactions with peers, engage in more prosocial behaviors, exhibit greater empathy, and perform better academically in elementary school
As adults, they tend to have higher self-esteem and a strong sense of personal identity
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth, et al., 1978) - Early attachment predictions of future adjustment - Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
At an increased risk for hostile and aggressive behavior, low self-esteem, and low academic achievement in childhood
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Attachment - Attachment to Fathers
A secure father-infant attachment is linked to positive social and cognitive outcomes
The basis for attachment to mothers and fathers may differ
Maternal sensitivity has been identified as the primary contributor to a secure attachment, while paternal involvement in caregiving (especially vigorous physical play) has been identified as a key contributor to a secure father-infant attachment
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Attachment - Prolonged Separation (adopted in early childhood)
Prior to 3 months - little to no negative consequences
9+ months - moderate to extreme reactions, including feeding and sleeping problems, social withdrawal, increased stranger anxiety, and wither physical rejection of the new mother or excessive clinging to her, and other emotional and behavioral problems
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Attachment - Intergenerational Effects of Attachment
research confirms a relationship between parents' own early attachment experiences and the attachment patterns of their children
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Attachment - Intergenerational Effects of Attachment - Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) - Autonomous Classification
Are given this classification when the give coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships
These adult tend to have children who exhibit a secure attachment
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Attachment - Intergenerational Effects of Attachment - Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) - Dismissing Classification
Are given this classification when they provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, but the descriptions are either not supported or are contradicted by specific memories
Children of these adults often exhibit an avoidant attachment pattern
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Attachment - Intergenerational Effects of Attachment - Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) - Preoccupied Classification
Are given this classification when they become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with a parent or seem passively preoccupied with a parent
Their children most often exhibit a resistant/ambivalent attachment pattern
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Emotions - Early emotions sequence (Soon after birth, 6-8 months, age 1 to 2, 18-24 months, 30-36 months)
Soon after birth - primary (basic) emotions such as interest, sadness, disgust, and distress
6-8 months - anger, joy, surprise and fear
Age 1 to 2 - self-conscious emotions, which reflect children's ability to use social standards and rules to evaluate their own behaviors
18-24 months - they begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment
30-36 months - shame, guilt, and pride
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Emotions - Emotional Contagion
First few weeks of life
The ability of infants to detect emotions in others
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Emotions - Empathy
The vicarious experiencing of another person's feelings and is considered to be an important contributor to moral development
Consists of cognitive and affective components, with the cognitive component involving perspective-taking (a person's ability to adopt to another person's point of view) and the affective component consisting of a person's emotional reaction to another person's well-being.
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Aggression - Instrumental Aggression
Proactive aggression performed in order to obtain a desired reward or advantage
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Aggression - Hostile Aggression
Reactive aggression that is an angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person.
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Aggression - Causes of Aggression - Family contributions (Patterson and colleagues [1992])
Two main characteristics:
coercive interactions (reliance on coercive, aggressive behaviors by both children and their parents to gain compliance)
Poor parental monitoring of children's activities
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Aggression - Causes of Aggression - Coercive Family Interaction Model
A. Children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward their children's aggressiveness with approval and attention
B. over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
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Aggression - Causes of Aggression - Oregon model of parent management
Designed to help stop the coercive cycle by teaching parents effective parenting skills (limit setting/discipline, monitoring/supervision, problem solving, positive involvement, and skill encouragement) and providing parents with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress
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Aggression - Causes of Aggression - Social-Cognitive Factors
Differ from less aggressive peers in 3 domains:
A. self-efficacy beliefs (they are more likely to say that it is easy to perform aggressive acts but difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses)
B. Beliefs about the outcomes of their behaviors (they expect that aggression will be followed by positive consequences including reduced aversive treatment by others)
C. Regret or remorse (they show little remorse after committing an aggressive act)
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Aggression - Gender and Aggression
Boys are more aggressive than girls in a variety of contexts such as boys engage in more "rough-and-tumble" play, exhibit greater physical aggression, and are more dominant with peers
Differences appear to be both biological and environmental and are greatest among preschoolers and then gradually decline with increasing age up through the college years
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Moral Development definition
The ability to distinguish right from wrong and to then act in accordance with that distinction
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Moral Development - Piaget's Theory - Premoral Stage
Prior to age 6
Exhibit little (if any) concern for rules
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Moral Development - Piaget's Theory - Heteronomous Morality Stage
Ages 7 - 10
Children believe that rule are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When judging whether an act is "right" or "wrong" they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are - i.e., the greater the negative consequences, the worse the act.
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Moral Development - Piaget's Theory - Autonomous Morality Stage
Beginning at age 11
Children view rules as arbitrary and as being alterable when people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act's consequences
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Preconventional Morality - Punishment and Obedience Orientation
The goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequence's. For children at this stage, the right course of action is the one that allows them to avoid punishment
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Preconventional Morality - Law and Order Orientation
Moral judgments are based on the rules and laws establish by legitimate authorities
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Conventional Morality - Good Boy-Good Girl Orientation
The right action is the one that is liked or approved of by others
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Conventional Morality - Law and Order Orientation
Moral judgments are based on the rules and laws established by legitimate authorities
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Postconventional Morality - Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Democratically Accepted Laws
The morally right action is the one that is consistent with democratically determined laws (which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights)
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Moral Development - Kohlberg's Theory - Levels or Moral Development - Postconventional Morality - Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience
Right and wrong are determined on the basis of broad, self-chosen universally applicable ethical principles
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Moral Development - Gilligan's Theory
Argued that Kohlberg's original research was based on all males, and therefore, not applicable to females, whose moral judgments are influenced less by concerns about justice and individual right and more by concerns related to caring, compassion, and responsibility to others.
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Harlow's research with rhesus monkeys found that ______ is more important for attachment than oral gratification
contact comfort
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Bowlby proposed that there is a ________ period for attachment and that, as a result of their experiences during this period, children develop an ________ model that influences their future relationships
critical
Internal working
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By about _______ months of age, children's attachment behaviors are directed primarily toward primary caregivers. Most babies exhibit separation anxiety by 6 to 8 months of age; and this is followed, at 8 to 10 months, by _________ anxiety.
6 to 7
stranger
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In the strange situation, a (n) _________ attached youngster is upset by his mother's absence and actively seeks her comfort when she returns. In contrast, a(n) ________ child shows little distress when his mother leave and may ignore her when she returns. About 80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit a(n) ________ attachment pattern
Securely
Insecure/avoidant
disorganized/disoriented
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Children separated from their primary caregivers prior to _______ of age usually show few negative consequences, while those who are ______ of age or older often exhibit disturbances in feeding and sleeping, social withdrawal, and either physical rejection of the new caregiver or excessive clinging to him/her
3 months
9 months
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Research on the intergenerational effects of attachment has found that parents who are categorized as dismissing on the AAI are most likely to have children who exhibit a(n) _______ attachment pattern in the strange situation, while those who are categorized as preoccupied are most likely to have children with a(n) _______ attachment pattern.
insecure avoidant
Insecure resistant/ambivalent
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Babies usually express the ______ emotions of interest, sadness, disgust, and distress soon after birth and the self-conscious emotions of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment by ________ months of age.
primary (basic)
18 to 24
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Patterson and his colleagues attribute high levels of aggressiveness in children to ________ interactions between children and their parents and poor ______ of children's activities and have developed the Oregon model of _________ that involves teaching parents effective parenting skills. Aggressive behavior has also been linked to several social-cognitive factors including a __________ bias, which is the tendency to interpret the positive or ambiguous actions of others as intentionally hostile
coercive
parental monitoring
parent management training
hostile attribution
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Piaget's theory of moral development distinguishes between heteronomous and autonomous stages of morality. In the former, moral judgments are based primarily on the act's _________; in the latter, on the actor's ________.
consequences
intentions
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Kohlberg's theory of moral development predicts a universal, invariant sequence of three levels; At the _______ level, moral judgments are based on the desire to avoid punishment or obtain rewards. This is followed by the _______ level, in which judgements are contingent on social approval or rules and laws established by legitimate authorities. Finally, at the _______ level, moral judgments are based on democratically-determines laws or universal ethical principles
preconventional
conventional
Postconventional
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Gilligan criticized Kohlberg's theory on the grounds that it applies more to males who focus on justice and _________ when making moral judgments than to females who focus more on caring and responsibility to others.
individual rights
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A baby with insecure/avoidant attachment:
A.is very distressed when separated from his/her mother and continues to be highly anxious when she returns.
B.is more anxious when his/her mother is present than absent and resists contact with her when she returns following separation.
C.is very distressed when separated from his/her mother but pulls away from her when she returns.
D.shows little distress when separated from his/her mother and turns away from her when she returns.
D
In Ainsworth's "strange situation," insecure/avoidant children are uninterested in exploration, show little distress when separated from their mothers, and avoid her when she returns.
Answer A: This does not describe any of the typical patterns in the "strange situation."
Answer B: This describes the pattern of disorganized/disoriented attachment.
Answer C: This describes the pattern of insecure/ambivalent attachment. The four attachment patterns described by Ainsworth and her colleagues (secure, insecure/ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented) are described in the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials. You'll want to become familiar with the characteristics associated with each pattern because you're likely to encounter a question similar to this one on the exam.
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Separation from her mother is likely to have the fewest negative consequences for a baby if it occurs when the baby is between ______ months of age.
A.10-12
B.8-10
C.2-3
D.6-12
C
Separation from the primary caregiver prior to 6 months of age appears to cause the least amount of negative reaction.
Answer A: Older children can develop moderate to extreme reactions to separation.
Answer B: At this age, stranger anxiety begins and a negative reaction becomes more likely.
Answer D: Anaclitic depression, developmental delays and withdrawal may all occur when separation occurs in the second half of the first year.
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At approximately ____ months of age, babies begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment.
A.6-12
B.18
C.12
D.36
B
At about this time frame, children begin to use social standards to evaluate behavior and thus show these more socially based emotional reactions.
Answer A: Prior to 12 months, anger, joy, surprise, and fear are the primary emotions expressed.
Answer C: Twelve months and prior, anger, joy, surprise, and fear are the primary emotions expressed.
Answer D: The emotional range of the child expands to feelings of shame, guilt, and pride in this time frame. Jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment appear earlier, as noted in response B
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If you are developing an intervention to reduce aggressiveness in children and you are basing it on the work of G. R. Patterson and his colleagues (1992), a primary component of the intervention will be:
A.providing the child with opportunities for catharsis
B.training parents in effective child management skills
C.increasing the child's self-monitoring skills
D.habit reversal training for the child
B
Patterson was interested in the relationship between parents and children, and how this related to aggressive behavior. Training parents in behavioral management skills would be a central focus of such an intervention.
Answer A: Catharsis is a Freudian concept, unrelated to Patterson's behavioral approach.
Answer C: Self-monitoring is not a focus of Patterson's research.
Answer D: Habit-reversal training is not an approach used by Patterson in studying aggressive children.
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A child in Piaget's autonomous stage of moral development will base his judgment of whether an act is "right" or "wrong" primarily on:
A.intentions
B.rules
C.premoral ideas
D.the morality of constraint
A
Piaget proposed a sequence of moral development involving three stages: premoral, moral realism, and moral relativism. During the autonomous stage, moral relativism is the basis of judgment. Children in this stage view rules as arbitrary and as being alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act's consequences.
Answer B: Rules and the consequences of violating a rule are the basis of moral judgment during the stage of moral realism (which is also called the heteronomous stage).
Answer C: Premoral refers to the period prior to age 6 when there is little concern for moral rules.
Answer D: Rules and the consequences of violating a rule are the basis of moral judgment during the stage of moral realism.
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During Kohlberg's postconventional stage, moral judgments are based on:
A.either consensus or universal principles
B.actions approved of by others
C.rules and laws
D.consequences and obtaining rewards
A
In Kohlberg's post-conventional stage, decisions are based either on democratically determined or by universal rules of morality.
Answer B: This is more representative of Kohlberg's conventional stage.
Answer C: This is more representative of Kohlberg's conventional stage.
Answer D: This is more representative of Kohlberg's pre-conventional stage.
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Harlow's research with rhesus monkeys concluded that a baby’s attachment to his or her mother is due, in part, to _______________.
A.contact comfort
B.social referencing
C.secure attachment
D.oral gratification
A
Harlow concluded that a baby’s attachment to his or her mother is due, in part, to contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent (Harlow & Harlow, 1969).
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