Antibodies are proteins designed to recognize specific "markers" (antigens) of a virus. Antibodies Flag, slow, kill (like compliment proteins), and neutralize toxins.
Along with the neon sign proteins and the compliment proteins, what else does the intrusion by a pathogen into the body also stimulate before the helper T-cells get activated?
the production of antibodies (only if the pathogen has been encountered by the body before)
What is going on in this picture?
A group of proteins attaches to cells that have not been burst by compliment proteins and acts as a neon sign for leucocytes.
What process is this representing?
The process of compliment proteins forming a coating around the pathogen allowing different proteins to rupture the cell, fill it with water, causing it to burst.
If the pathogen got past the compliment proteins, what happens next?
A large group of proteins attaches to the cells that have not burst and act as a neon sign for the leukocytes.
What do compliment proteins do?
They work together to form a coating around the "bad guy." Then, a different protein punctures the cell, filling it with water and causing it to burst.
As soon as pathogens enter the body, they activate______
compliment proteins already floating around in the blood.
What is considered a pathogen?
A bacteria, a virus, a fungi, etc.
During the second line of defense there is an inflammatory response. What things could happen in this response and what is the point of that?
The inflammatory response includes redness (due to increased blood flow to get the macrophages where they need to go quicker), heat (to cookout the invader), pain (to let the body know there is something wrong), and swelling (to help leucocytes travel/diffuse)
What are the dead fragments of cells killed by neutrophils called?
Pus.
What are neutrophils?
They are specific macrophages that attack infected cells, destroying the cell and the microbes.
What happens in the second line of defense?
Specialized white blood cells called macrophages "eat" the invader by the process of phagocytosis. (when the cell surrounds the bacteria and engulfs it)
When does the second line of defense (macrophages) come into play?
if an invader gets past the first line.
What are some examples of the physical (1st) lines of defense on the human body?
The skin, mucus membranes, hair, and cilia. Also, the low PH of the oils secreted by the skin kills germs AND lysozyme (anti-bacterial) secreted in bodily fluids also kills bacteria.
What does it mean if a line of defense is specific or non-specific?
Non-specific: this line of defense will destroy anything
specific: this line of defense will destroy specific proteins/pathogens.
How was erythroblastosis fetalis been dealt with?
How does AIDS spread?
through exchange of bodily fluid through intimate sexual contact, blood to blood contact, or contaminated needles.
What does AIDS cause?
It causes someone to fall victim to a disease the immune system would normally be able to prevent because if the helper T cells are destroyed, then practically nothing in the immune system works.
What disease causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome?
they are set off by T cells, they are slower but last for a longer time (Ex. cosmetic or jewelry reactions)
Describe acute/ immediate reactions.
-They occur within seconds and disappear within 30 minutes.
- The body releases histamines, making blood vessels more permeable = area becomes red and swollen.
- Antibodies trigger the release of cellular fluids that cause watery eyes and runny nose
- Additionally, some forms of asthma are an immediate reaction to allergies
What are the two main types of hypersensitivity?
Acute/ immediate reactions and delayed reactions.
What is hypersensitivity?
Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated response by the immune system to a harmless material such as pollen, mold, certain foods, animal fur, etc.
What is another name for an allergy?
Hypersensitivity.
What is diabetes mellitus?
An immune response which attacks the pancreatic islet cells which are crucial for producing insulin.
What is Addison's disease?
When an immune response attacks the adrenal gland which stops the body from providing cortisol and aldosterone.
What is rheumatoid arthritis?
When an immune response starts at the joints and attacks the cartilage, bone, tendons, and ligaments. This causes inflammation of the lining of joints.
What are some examples of some autoimmune disorders?
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Addison's disease, and diabetes mellitus.
What are Autoimmune disorders?
Autoimmune disorders are when T cells or antibodies attack the body's own cells as if they were foreign antigens.
How is erythroblastosis fetalis dealt with nowadays?
Women are now given an anti Rh serum (RHoGAM) after birth to destroy the antigens and prevent the formation of antibodies.
What can lead to erythroblastosis fetalis (blue baby)?
If a mother has two baby's and both of her baby's are RH+ and she is RH- then during the first pregnancy, the mother will being to build anti rhesus antibodies as her blood is not compatible with the baby's (the baby and mother are constantly trading blood). In this case, the baby will still be fine as the army of anti rhesus antibodies is still only building. However, if the mother gets pregnant again with another baby that has Rh+ blood, then all of those antibodies the mother built up the first time around will attack the baby. Resulting in erythroblastosis fetalis.
When does the RH system pose a problem?
During transfusions and pregnancy (if mom and baby are not compatible)
True or false:
Rh- can donate to Rh+ but Rh+ cannot donate to Rh-
True. This is because Rh+ blood does not have an antibody for blood that is Rh- but Rh- blood has anti-rhesus antibodies for blood that is Rh+, resulting in this being true.
What happens if someone does not have a rhesus factor marker (RH-)?
If someone does not have a rhesus factor marker (RH-), it means they have negative blood type.
What does it mean if someone has a rhesus factor (RH+) marker?
It means they have a positive blood type.
What is agglutination?
Agglutination is the clumping of red blood cells that can block circulation and cause severe damage to organs. (this is pretty much blood clotting that is taking place all around the body)
What will happen if someone received an incompatible blood type?
It will cause the immune system to attack that blood type leading to agglutination.
What is blood type AB considered to be? Why?
Blood type AB is considered to be the universal Acceptor. This is because it has no antibodies in it's plasma, allowing any blood to enter it's system.
What is blood type O considered to be? Why?
Blood type O is considered to be the universal donor as it has no antigens on it (other than the Rh protein), making it much less of a chance for it being rejected by someone's immune system as no antigen= no antibodies that can kill it.
Fill in the blanks:
A: A, Anti-B
B: B, Anti-A
AB: A and B, none
O: none, Anti-A and Anti-B
What are the second and third most common blood types?
2nd: Type A
3rd: Type B
What is the least common blood type?
Blood type AB.
What is the most common blood type?
Type O.
What are the differences between the four types of blood?
The differences between the four types of blood don't come due to protein structure or anything like that at all. The only differences are due to the presence or absence of proteins on the surface of the cells called antigens.
What are the four types of blood?
A, B, AB, and O. All of these can be Rh positive or negative.
Are memory B cells killed off after an immune response has ended? Why?
No. This is because memory B cells hold an imprint of the antigen for a specific invader and will initiate an immune response right away the next time the same invader enters the body.
When are memory B cells generated?
During "the battle"
What are memory B cells?
Memory B cells are cells that instantly recognize the antigen of a disease already acquired by the body and instantly produce antibodies for this disease if it comes back without needing to go through a long process.
What happens when the "battle" inside of the body has been won?
- Suppressor T cells inhibit the immune response
- Most of the B cells and T cells die off after a few days
- However, some will stake out the area for a long time. Ex. Memory B cells which instantly make the antibodies which encounter the disease without needing to go through the long process of making antibodies if the same infection comes back.
What do immunosuppressant drugs do?
Immunosuppressant drugs deactivate the immune system and are often used in organ transplants to prevent the body's immune system from killing the foreign organ, tricking the body into accepting the organ.
What do Killer T cells do?
Killer T cells puncture the membrane of an intruder and kill it. They are the cells that eat mutated cells before they become cancerous. Additionally, they are also the cells that attack transplanted organs and and must be suppressed with an immunosuppressant drug.
Describe the process of how the third line of immunity works (the processes involving the B cells and T cells)
Once the second line of defense (macrophages) has done it's job, the antigen of the invader sticks out of the macrophage cell. Then, the helper T cells recognize the shape and send out a chemical called lymphokine. Lymphokine then reaches the B cells and causes them to divide rapidly, becoming plasma cells, and produce the antibody to the invader. Not only do the helper T cells help with antibody production, they also activate killer T cells which are cytotoxic.
What is a problem that antigens could cause? How is this preventable?
If a foreign body uses its antigen to attach to a cell and have the cell engulf it, it will kill the cell as the body would think that that cell is an invader due to it having an invaders antigen, which is a bad thing as the body is now killing its own cells. This issue is preventable by having antibodies bind to antigens.
Are antigens helpful to the cells involved in killing invaders? If so, why?
Yes, antigens are helpful to the cells involved in killing invaders. This is because antigens make it easier for the cells to identify which cells to kill.
What are antigens?
They are a part of a protein that identifies which protein is which.
Where are B cells made and stored?
In the bone marrow.
Where are T cells produced and stored
T cells are produced in the bone and are stored in the thymus.
How many types of white blood cells are in the immunity system?