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The Role of Heredity - Genotype
A person's genetic inheritance
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The Role of Heredity - Phenotype
A person's observed characteristics, which are due to a combination of heredity and environment.
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model
A developmental model involving characteristics between the individual and their context or environment and describes the context in term of five environmental systems:
- microsystems
- mesosystems
- exosystems
- macrosystems
- chronosystems
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model - microsystems
the child's immediate environment and includes face-to-face relationships within the home, school, and neighborhood (e.g., the child's relationships with parents, siblings, peers, and teachers)
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model - mesosystem
interactions between components of the microsystem, such as the influence of family factors on the child's behavior at school
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model - exosystem
consists of elements in the broader environment that affect the child's immediate environment and includes parents' workplace, the school board, community agencies, local industry, and the mass media
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model - macrosystem
comprised of such overarching environmental influences as cultural beliefs and practices, economic conditions, and political ideologies
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The Role of the Environment - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model - chronosystems
consists of environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on his or her circumstances and developmental stage (e.g., the immediate and long-term effects of a change in family structure or socioeconomic status)
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Risk and Resilience - Rutter's Indicators
Six family risk factors that increase psychiatric risk for children. 2% risk for those with 0-1 risk factor --> 21% for those with four or more.
severe martial discord
low socioeconomic status
overcrowding or large family size
parental criminality
maternal psychopathology
placement of the child outside the home
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Reaction Range
A range of reaction for certain traits and that an individual's status within that range depends on environmental factors
a person may be shorter than his or her genetic predisposition dictates due to illness or poor diet.
genetic make-up determines whether the reaction range is narrow or broad --> mild cognitive impairment would have a broader range than a child with a severe impairment
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Genotype-Environment Correlation
proposes that a person's genetic make-up influences the environments the person is exposed to and that exposure to those environments reinforces the person's genetic make-up.
Three types:
passive
evocative
active
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Genotype-Environment Correlation - Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation
Occurs when children inherit genes from their parents that predispose them toward particular traits, and the parents provide the children with environments that encourage the development of those traits.
Children of athletic parents are likely to be genetically predisposed to athleticism and will also be provided by their parents with a sports-oriented environment that encourages their interest and participation in sports
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Genotype-Environment Correlation - Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlation
Occurs when a child's genetic make-up evokes reactions from parents and others that reinforce their genetic make-up
preschool children who are genetically predisposed to be cooperative and attentive will have more positive instructional interactions with teachers than will uncooperative, inattentive children
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Genotype-Environment Correlation - Active Genotype-Environment Correlation
Also referred to as niche-picking
occurs when children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions
Children who are extroverted will seek out socially stimulating activities, while children who are introverted will actively avoid those activities
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Heredity-Environment Interactions - Epigenesis
Describes the relationships between genetic and environmental influences as bidirectional and ongoing. Each stage of development is affected by previous genetic, behavioral, and environmental interactions and, in turn, affects future interactions.
During prenatal development, malnutrition or exposure to certain toxins may influence the functioning of genes that control temperament, and the child's temperament will then affect his parents' behaviors which, in turn, will affect the child's attachment style and other characteristics, and so on.
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Ethology and Modern Evolutionary Psychology - Ethology
the branch of zoology that is dedicated to the study of animal behavior in natural habitats.
Based on the assumptions that all animals species are born with a number of biologically programmed behaviors that are 1. products of evolution and 2. are adaptive in that they contribute to survival
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Ethology and Modern Evolutionary Psychology - Ethology - critical periods
specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development
goslings imprint on the first moving object they see during the first two or three days after birth (normally their mothers) and then follow and stay near to that object, because doing so helps ensure their survival. This is a critical period
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Ethology and Modern Evolutionary Psychology - Ethology - sensitive periods
Longer in duration and more flexible than critical periods, and they are not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational stage
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Ethology and Modern Evolutionary Psychology - Evolutionary Psychology
Focuses on how natural selection predisposes organisms toward certain behaviors. However, while ethologists focus on adaptive instincts and drives, evolutionary psychologists focus on mental and emotional adaptations that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Stages of Prenatal Development
Germinal stage: first 2 weeks, the fertilized ovum is called a zygote
Embryonic stage: 3rd - 8th week
Fetal stage: 9th week - birth
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Chromosomal Disorders
All human cells contain 46 chromosomes that are arranged in 23 pairs. 22 pairs referred to as autosomes and the 23rd pair contain sex chromosomes (XX for females, XY or males)
Disorders on autosomes are referred to as autosomal disorders
disorders on sex chromosomes are referred to as sex-linked
the result of inheritance of a single dominant gene or two recessive genes or to a chromosomal abnormality
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Chromosomal Disorders - Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A recessive gene disorder
People with PKU lack an enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid found in milk, eggs, bread, and other food. Can lead to severe intellectual disability if a diet low in phenylalanine is not started soon after birth
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Chromosomal Disorders - Down Syndrome
A chromosomal abnormality disorder - autosomal
caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21
characterized intellectual disability, retarded physical growth and motor development, distinctive physical features, and increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease, leukemia, and heart defects
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Chromosomal Disorders - Klinefelter Syndrome
Occurs in males and is due to the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome.
A male with this disorder has a small penis and testes, develops breasts during puberty, has limited interest in sexual activity, is often sterile, and may have learning disabilities
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Chromosomal Disorders - Turner Syndrome
Occurs in females and is caused by the presence of a single X chromosome. Females with Turner syndrome are short in stature; have drooping eyelids, a webbed neck, and other characteristic features; have retarded or absent development of the secondary sex characteristics; and may exhibit certain cognitive deficits (impaired visual-spatial, executive, and social-cognitive functioning)
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Teratogens
Substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus and include drugs, chemicals, and certain maternal conditions
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Teratogens - Alcohol
Can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Teratogens - Cocaine
increases risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth
high risk for SIDS, seizures, low birthweight, and reduced head circumference
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Teratogens - Maternal Health
A variety of infections, diseases, and other conditions that affect the pregnant woman also have an impact on the developing embryo and fetus
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Birth Defects - Teratogens - Maternal Health - Malnutrition
associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Premature and Small-for-Gestational Age Infants - Premature
born less than 37 weeks after conception
linked to low SES, teen mothers, malnutrition, and drug use
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Prenatal Development and Birth - Premature and Small-for-Gestational Age Infants - Small-for-Gestational Age (SGA)
birth weight below the 10th percentile for their gestational age.
At risk for asphyxia during birth, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, and other physical problems
At risk for learning disabilities and ADHD
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Some traits are the result of multiple genes, while others are attributable to a single pair of genes that contain a single dominant gene or 2 __________ genes. For example, brown eyes and dark hair require _________, while green or blue eyes and blond hair require _________. The contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic can be expressed in terms of a heritability estimate, which indicates the extent to which phenotypes vary within groups as the result of differences in _________.
recessive
1 dominant gene
2 recessive genes
genotype
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Bronfenbrenner's ecological model distinguishes between five contexts that influence development - microsystems, __________, exosystems, macrosystems, and chronosystems
mesosystems
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Rutter identified several factors (indicators) that increase a child's risk for psychopathology - i.e., sever __________, low SES, large family size, parental ________, maternal psychopathology, and placement of the child outside the home. Research investigating the impact of early stress on development suggests that high-risk babies are less likely to have negative outcomes when the babies experience fewer stressors following birth and have an easy temperament marked by a high degree of ________ and good communication skills
martial conflict
criminality
social responsivity
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3 types of genotype-environment correlation have been proposed to explain how genetic and environmental factors combine to produce an individual's attributes: passive, _______, and active. Active genotype-environmental correlation is also known as _________ and occurs when children seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions
evoked
niche-picking
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In contrast to critical periods, _______ periods are more flexible and longer in duration.
sensitive
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Birth defects are caused by a number of factors. PKU is due to the presence of a pair of _______, Down syndrome is the result of an extra, ________ syndrome if caused by the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome, and Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a chromosomal _________.
recessive genes
21st chromosome
Klinefelter
deletion
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The critical period for teratogens varies from organ to organ but, overall, exposure during the _______ stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities
embryonic
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Alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can cause _________, which encompasses a range of conditions that involve largely irreversible physical, behavioral, and/or cognitive abnormalities
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
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________ use by a pregnant woman increases the risk for stillbirth, SIDS, seizures, low birthweight, an exaggerated startle response, and developmental delays
Cocaine
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The most common symptoms of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV [a type of herpes virus]) are some degrees of _______ and hearing and vision impairments.
intellectual disability
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Prenatal malnutrition is associated with a number of abnormalities, with severe _______ deficiency during the 3rd trimester being especially detrimental for the developing brain.
protein
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Prolonged ______ during the birth process can result in delayed motor and cognitive development, intellectual disability, and, in severe cases, cerebral palsy
anoxia (an absence of oxygen)
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Rutter (1985) studied the risk and protective factors that are associated with child psychopathology. His research found that which of the following places a child at greatest risk for behavioral problems?
A.An accumulation of several risk factors
B.Maternal psychopathology
C.Severe neglect in early life
D.Exposure to discord and foster care placement
A
Rutter argued that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concluded that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology: severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and the placement of a child outside the home.
Answer B: This is only one of the risk factors identified by Rutter.
Answer C: Severe neglect was not the sole risk factor in Rutter's work.
Answer D: Placement outside the home and marital discord are two of the risk factors, but they are not the only ones. As noted above, it is the impact of a number of risk factors that Rutter focused on.
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Down Syndrome is caused by:
A.consumption of alcohol during pregnancy
B.viral exposure in the birth canal
C.an anoxic event that traumatizes the newborn
D.a genetic defect
D
Down syndrome is caused by trisomy 21. The person has three copies of chromosome 21, instead of the usual two copies, in all cells. This is caused by abnormal cell division during the development of the sperm cell or the egg cell.
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The most common cause of cerebral palsy is:
A.alcohol use by the mother in the first trimester
B.genetic mutation
C.brain injury early in life
D.cytomegalovirus
C
Although it used to be accepted that oxygen deprivation at birth was the primary cause, it is now known that this is only one cause of the cases, and therefore the more general answer is best.
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____________ during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems.
A.Rubella
B.HIV/AIDS
C.Malnutrition
D.Stress
C
Malnutrition during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and may result in suppression of the immune system, intellectual disability, and other serious problems. Severe malnutrition in the third trimester (especially protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for the developing brain and can lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelination, and neurotransmitter abnormalities. A lack of folic acid during prenatal development can result in spina bifida or other neural tube defect.
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A developmental psychologist investigating the influence of Bronfenbrenner's mesosystem on child development will focus on:
A.how children interact in social systems outside the home, such as a karate class
B.how blended families influence adjustment
C.the interaction of two or more systems in the child's life
D.the influence of culture on development
C
The mesosystem is a combination of two or more microsystems. For example, a student conference represents a mesosystem, as it is the interaction of the home and school microsystems.
Answer A: A karate class, sport, or other activity is an example of a microsystem in the Bronfenbrenner lexicon.
Answer B: A blended family is not a mesosystem, as it does not meet the definition of two microsystems. A blended family is a microsystem, that is, a system that has a direct impact on the child. Interactions between two households in a divorced family would, however, be a mesosystem.
Answer D: Cultural values and beliefs are macrosystems in Bronfenbrenner's theory.
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Research by Werner and Smith (1982) found that a high-risk baby is least likely to suffer long-term negative consequences if:
A.they come from higher SES backgrounds, especially regarding the education of the parent.
B.they have temperamental characteristics that promote positive relationships and high resiliency.
C.there is no history of marital conflict, poverty or family psychopathology.
D.there are strong sibling relationships to counter-balance the risk factors.
B
In these studies, resilient children showed pro-social characteristics, typically had a strong relationship with an adult in their life, and had experiences which increased their belief in control over their environment.
Answer A: The studies did not show an effect of SES or education of the parent.
Answer C: These studies focused on factors that supported positive outcomes despite such conditions.
Answer D: Sibling relationships were not a focus of these studies.
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Risk and Resilience - Werner and Smith (1982)
Found infants who experienced significant prenatal and perinatal stress had more physical and cognitive difficulties than infants who did not, but the differences between the two groups of infants declined over time
Positive outcomes for high-risk babies were more likely when (a) experienced fewer stressors following birth; (b) had an easy temperament marked by a high degree of social responsivity, good communication skills, and consistent eating and sleeping patterns; and (c) were provided with stable support from a parent or other caregiver
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During a "critical period:"
A.there is a specific window of time in which a particular stage of development may occur.
B.certain conditions of development must be met.
C.certain biological or behavioral characteristics require appropriate exposure or stimulation in order to develop.
D.language development occurs through exposure and repetition.
C
This is the most complete definition of a critical period of the responses offered.
Answer A: This response describes a sensitive period.
Answer B: Although this statement is true, it is not a complete definition of a critical period.
Answer D: This is a possible specific example of a critical period, but it is not a definition.
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The symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
A.can be alleviated by proper nutrition in the first few months following birth.
B.gradually improve during the first few years of life, although some behavioral symptoms may persist into adulthood.
C.that are behavioral become minimal by adolescence, but physical signs persist into adulthood.
D.are irreversible and persist into adulthood.
D
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol and affects multiple areas of development. The severity of the symptoms of FASD depends on the degree of prenatal exposure to alcohol. However, regardless of their severity, most symptoms are irreversible.
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Which of the following is useful for preventing the severe intellectual disability that can accompany phenylketonuria (PKU)?
A.Diet management
B.Behavioral analysis and structured behavioral plan
C.Parental training to deal with the behavioral sequelae
D.Infusions to provide the missing enzymes for complete metabolism
A
A low-protein diet is the main treatment for phenylketonuria (PKU). This is because people who have PKU lack an enzyme to properly process the amino acid phenylalanine, a part of protein. Phenylalanine is present in all protein foods and in some nonprotein foods, such as soda and artificial sweeteners. The neural and intellectual effects are the result of these metabolic issues.
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