AO1 Psychological Development

Psychological Developemt is the process of growth and change in humans cognitive, emotional and social capabilities and funcitioning over the life span

Nature refers to hereditary factors on psychological development 

• Hereditary Factors:
• refers to the inborn, inherited genetic factors passed from boligical parents to children that partly determine individual characteristics 

Many of our individual features are determined at conception. For example, eye colour is genetically determined by the genes inherited from your bological parents.

The effects that external biological and social environmental factors have on the development of our physical, psychological and behaviour characteristics. 

Characteristics such as: experiences we have that influence or help shape us before birth and over the life span

Examples of nuture: how we are cared for as children with regard to food, education, love and support

More examples: the environment within the womb, exposure to environmental toxins and peer-group influence

Research into the effects of nature and nurture on development suggests that the environment in which a child is raised can have a powerful impact on their physical, cognitive (intellectual) and emotional development.

Studies that use identical and fraternal twins to investigate the influence of hereditary factors vs the environment on psychological developement.

ADVANTAGES: Allows us to compare how similar twins are to each other- this would indicate the influence of nature (hereditary factors)

• DISADVANTAGES: 
• identical twins looks the same, so they may be treated similarly leading to similar personality traits (thus not entirely because of nature)
• Just because twins share the same home and parents, it doesn't mean their upbringing has been exactly the same

In adoption studies, children from families who have one adopted child and one biological child are compared. 


ADVANTAGE: Adoption studies allows to compare how similar adopted children are to adoptive parents- this would indicate the influence of nurture (environmental factors)

DISADVANTAGE: adoptive agencies try to match the child’s biological parent’s characteristic with adoptive parents

refers to the close emotional bond or relationship between an infant and the mother or primary caregiver

John Bowlby began work in the 1940’s on attachment theory by observing children in institutions as some provided a higher level of care and nurturing than others

- Infants are biologically programmed to form attachment with their primary caregiver

- To avoid long term emotional difficulties, an infant should not be separated from it’s mother in the first two years of life

-Other caregivers play important roles in an infants life but they fall lower on the hierarchy compared to the mother

the feelings of apprehension and worry experienced by an infant when that are separated from a caregiver

To test and measure the quality of an infants attachment, she created a laboratory experiment called the strange situation test. She tested this on infants aged 9-18 months

not affected by mothers prescence or absence- rarely cried and shows little attention to her upon her return 

characteristics: neglectful, angry, hostile

distressed when mother leaves but happy and comforted by her return, open to exploration 

characteristics: loving, responsive, supportive

very distressed if mother leaves and not comforted by the returning, heightened anxiety, does not explore the room even when mother is present 

characteristics: non-affectionate, unresponsive

Harry Harlow completed experiment on rhesus monkeys to investigate factors influencing the development of attachment by infant monkeys to their mothers​

Monkeys were reared in ages, each of which contained two surrogate mothers​

Surrogate mothers were made from either wire mesh or covered in terry-towelling cloth and a feeding bottle placed on them

He found that regardless of which surrogate had the bottle and had the same amount of milk and nourishment they all found comfort with the cloth surrogate

Thus he concluded that ‘contact comfort’, which was provided with the cloth was more important than feeding and generalised his findings to humans

refers to all mental processes, including perceiving, conceptualising, remembering, reasoning, imagining and problem solving

refers to the growth and maturation of these thinking processes. Growth in these areas help children make sense of the world around them as they move into adulthood

is when a person applies existing mental structures or processes to new experiences​

involves a person modifying their existing psychological concepts or processes​ to adapt their understanding and behaviour in response to new information or experiences

are the memory structures (or mental representations), developed from our experiences, that represents a person’s general knowledge about different kinds of objects and events

• Object permanence: The understanding that if things cannot be seen, heard or touched they still exist 
• E.g. Eg. If they haven’t reached this stage they genuinely think somebody has disappeared when playing peek-a-boo

• Goal Directed Behaviour: The ability to form a series of steps with a particular goal in mind.
• Eg. Crawling to get a toy on the ground

Egocentrism: Refers to the tendency of children to view situations and events only from their own perspective and believe that everyone else has the same view

Animism:Refers to the tendency of children to believe that any inanimate object possesses lifelike characteristics such as feelings. Eg. Giving care to a teddy

Centration: When children tend to narrowly focus on one aspect of the problem. Eg. Becoming upset if they see their sister getting two slices of cake when they only have one, even though the size of the two cakes combined equal their one

Symbolic Thinking: common for children to engage in through the process of pretend or make believe.

Conservation: When a child understands that physical properties such as mass, volume, number and length do not change even when their shape or appearance changes

Reversibility: Allows children to recognise that if 4+2 = 6 then 2+4 does too

Classification: The ability of children to be able to group together or categorise objects based on similar properties

Abstract thinking:Thinking in terms of general concepts rather than specific objects, experiences or events. Eg. Understanding the concept of love, freedom, morality, time, distance etc

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning:Being able to test a logical hypothesis by using abstract thought. Eg. Systematically planning how a problem should be solved

is a stage during biological maturation when an organism is most able to gain a particular skill or characteristic

-If a sensitive period is missed, the learning can still be acquired at a later date, it just may take longer and require more effort to learn the behaviour than if learned during the sensitive period

Example: For example, learning to read and write usually occurs within the first years of school, however, some people do not. If classes in reading and writing are taken as adults, they could possibly learn these skills, but it would take longer, more effort and the standard reached could be affected

of development involves a stage, usually early in the lifespan, when an organism is most open to acquiring a specific cognitive or motor skill

-These cannot be acquired normally at a later stage of development

-It involves a small window of opportunity to learn and behaviour – if this closes it can become nearly impossible to develop in the future

Example: Imprinting – An example of a critical period that occurs in the very early stages of life in animals. It is when young animals fix their attention to the first object they meet and follow them. Eg. Chicks following their mum

the behaviour of the majority people in a population or behaviour that is consisted with the way an individual normally behaves 

Example: waving your arms in the air and singing loudly at a music festival

Behaviour that is not like behaviour of the majority of people in a population or is inconsistent with the way an individual normally behaves. 

Example: waving your arms in the air and singing loudly in the supermarket

thought of as the distinctive beliefs, values, customs, knowledge, art and language that form the foundation of the everyday behaviours and practices of a society. 

Example – In Australia it is illegal considered abnormal to be married to more than one person at the same time whereas in some Middle Eastern countries that may considered acceptable and normal

socially defined rule, standard or value that describes behaviours that are expected within groups. 

Behaviour can be considered typical according to whether the behaviour fits in with the norms of that society.

Example – Looking someone in the eye when having a conversation is considered normal in Australia, however in some Asian countries eye contact is used to intimidate someone

A bell curve can be used to determine this

If a person is atypical in some way and this leads to behaviour that is abnormal, they are considered to be a statistical rarity. Example – If you have a really low or high IQ

are object that cause a feeling of stress. These can be felt internally and externally

is the physiological response to feeling threatened or challenged

is a negative physiological responses to a stressor. This can erode a person’s sense of wellbeing. As a result of this it can change their behaviour and be considered abnormal because it is causing the individual distress. Eg. Moodiness, anxiety, confusion and difficulty concentrating

behaviour that interferes with an individual’s ability to complete daily tasks and to function in their particular society

Eg. If you stay in bed all day, do not wash or eat or unable to hold a job, they would not be meeting their every day needs.

• Maladaptive behaviours can be minor or serious.
• Eg. Playing video games instead of completing an assignment or engaging in binge eating or excessive exercise to alleviate stress

relates to the capacity to cope with the demands of life or to behave in a way that allows you to achieve goals and meet needs

Describes an individual who thinks, behaves and feels in ways that are typical of most people

Individuals who think, behave or feel differently from most other people.

Eg. People who have been diagnosed with ADHD, autism and dyslexia

an individual’s capability in identifying, labelling and managing their emotions as well as understanding the emotional states of others

Eg. Being able to identify someone with a down turned mouth and tears to be sad or upset

allows us to communicate our internal states to meet our needs and engage in effective social interaction

Eg. Somebody only being able to yell and shout through anger

• Difference:
• Many neurodivergent people have trouble recognizing and regulating their emotions

Similarity: both terms describe how a person functions and their behaviours towards society

• Differences: 
• ways of learning, communicating, or even percieving the environment can affect how the minds between both types are different. Neurotypical may know more in terms of social whereas neurodivergent may come off as 'indifferent' 

• Similarities: 
• Both experience maladaptive cognitions

• Differences: 
• Neurodivergent may lack common manners towards people such as shouting, lack of eye contact, no smiling or straigh forward expression/responses. Can also lead to physical violence towards some people due to fear or 'stimming'. 

• Similarities: 
• Maladaptive emotions

the natural neurological difference that occurs between people’s nervous systems, particularly their brain, resulting in differences in learning, thinking and processing

The brains of people with autism can show differences in activity levels compared to the brains of neurotypical people while they are performing certain tasks. For example, during tests of auditory perception, autistic brains show increased brain activity

The brains of people with autism can show differences in activity levels compared to the brains of neurotypical people while they are performing certain tasks. For example, during tests of auditory perception, autistic brains show increased brain activity. This aligns with the tendency for some autistic people to experience hypersensitivity to sounds

psychological state of someone who is functioning at a satisfactory level of emotional and behavioural adjustment

occurs in response to stressors or environmental changes that affect a person’s psychological state and result in impaired functioning in their day-to-day life

-Appreciating diversity between various groups, families and communities

-Using cultural perspectives and knowledge to inform their practice

-Providing services that are safe and free from racism and cultural bias

A doctor will record any behavioural symptoms and family history, and investigate whether there are any environmental factors that may be encouraging or exacerbating the symptoms. A doctor will then decide whether to refer a patient to another mental health professional

is a broad description that covers a number of different types of workers who care for people with mental health issues

Study mental processes and behaviour. A psychologists will use evidence based therapies to support clients regain their mental health and wellbeing.

Treatments include; cognitive behavioural therapy and interpersonal therapy

Can prescribe medication to treat or reduce the symptoms of a mental illness

A referral from a GP is needed to see a psychiatrist

Develop treatment and support interventions for people suffering from more severe mental health conditions that require medications to control the symptoms, such as schizophrenia

• Differnces: Psychiatrist  
• - gives medical treatment 
• - assesses both mental and physical aspects of psychological problems 
• - prescibes and monitors medication treatments 

• Psychologist:
• - refers to someone who studies a topic
• - specialises in testing and evaluation

• Similarities: 
• - is an expert in mental health 
• - provides psychotherapy treatment