BIOLOGY CORE

absorption of water and minerals from soil to plant

• - large in number with finger like projection (to increase surface area for maximum absorption)
• - full of mitochondria (for energy for ion mineral absorption by active transport)
• - thin walls (shorter distance faster diffusion)
• - large central vacuole (for water absorption by osmosis)

• - support plant
• -transport water 
• - transport minerals

• - pits (for lateral movement)
• - no end wall, no cytoplasm, no nucleus (to prevent resistance of movement of water and molecules)
• - thin walls (to increase surface area for more water and minerals to pass)
• - lignified walls (to give plant support)

• goblet cells release sticky mucus to trap dust and bacteria 
• cillia beats or wasps sticky mucus up the throat

• -some of the cytoplasm is modified into contractile filament
• - respires aerobically and anaerobically
• -contains glycogen store as energy source
• - full of mitochondria 

flagellum

acrosome

protein

• Osmosis
• diffusion
• active transport

random movement of gasses and liquids from high concentration to low concentration areas until equilibrium

the diffusion of water molecules from high water potential regions to low water potential regions through a partially permeable membrane

the movement of molecules and ions through the cell membrane from regions of low concentration to regions of high concentration using energy from respiration and a specific protein carrier

• cell gains water
• by osmosis
• from areas of high water potential to low water potential
• through a partially permeable membrane
• cells becomes turgid 
• cell bursts due to absence of cell wall

• cell loses water
• by osmosis
• from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential
• through a partially permeable membrane 
• cell becomes flacid

active transport requires energy from respiration passive transport occurs naturally without energy

• plant cell gains water
• by osmosis
• from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential 
• through a partially permeable membrane 
• cell becomes turgid
• cell doesn't burst due to the presence of cell wall

• cell loses water
• by osmosis 
• from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential
• through a partially permeable membrane 
• cell becomes flacid
• cell membrane detaches from cell wall cell plasmolysis
• cell wilts

• by active transport 
• from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration
• through cell membrane 
• using energy from respiration
• and specific protein carrier

• every enzyme has specific active site 
• that fits with its substrate like lock and key
• enzyme and substrate are complimentary to each other

biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reaction without being changed

• temperature 
• ph

• less active 
• less kinetic energy
• less collision
• less chance of successful collision 
• less formation of enzyme substrate complex

• more active
• more kinetic energy
• more collision
• more chance of successful collision
• more formation of enzyme substrate complex

• enzyme has denatured 
• active site has changed shape
• enzyme and substrate no longer fit like lock and key 
• enzyme and substrate are no longer complimentary

• - saves electricity due to needing a low temperature of 35
• - can be reused
• - avoid damage done by boiling and rubbing

• - more juice
• - clearer juice
• - faster extraction 
• - sweeter juice

• - temperature
• - surface area 
• - current
• - gas pressure
• - size

set of organs working to ingest food, digest it, absorb it, assimilate it and egest undigested food.

• egestion is the removal of undigested food
• excretion is the removal of toxins and waste substances (anything but solid feaces)

the taking in of substances into the body through the mouth

the breaking down of large insoluble complex molecules into small simple soluble ones

the movement of digested food through the small intestine wall into the blood

the movement of digested food from blood to the cell to become part of it

removal of undigested food

the rhythmic contraction of muscles to move food along the alimentary canal

• -tongue
• -teeth
• -salivary gland

• -organ of taste 
• -mixes food with saliva 
• -moves food between the teeth

• -break down food into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzymes to work best(mechanical digestion)
• -facilitate swallowing

• secrete saliva containing
• -bicarbonate (to neutralise mouth acidity)
• -mucus (to soften and moisten food to be easily swallowed)
• -amylase (to break down starch into maltose)

• -mucus (to protect stomach from HCl and pepsin)
• -HCl (keep ph acidic- activates pepsinogen - kills bacteria)
• -pepsin (breaks down proteins to amino acids)

• -secrete bile salt to emulsify fat into small fat droplets to increase surface are for lipase to break down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
• -secrete bile pigment to give feaces its colour
• -secretes bicarbonate to neutralize acidity from stomach

gallblader

• secretes pancreatic juice containing 
• -lipase (to break down fats to fatty acids and glycerol)
• -trypsin (to break down proteins to amino acids)
• -amylase (to break down starch to maltose)
• -bicarbonate (to neutralize acidity)

• contain
• -maltase (to break down maltose to glucose)
• -pepsin (to break down proteins to amino acids)
• -lipase (to break down fats to fatty acids and glycerol)

• 1- bacteria in small intestine releases toxins
• 2- they stimulate small intestine walls too release chloride ions
• 3-the water potential in the small intestine decreases
• 4-so water moves by osmosis out of the cells into small intestine 
• 5- resulting in dehydration-diarrhea- loss of salts -loss of water

• -has lacteal(to absorb fatty acids and glycerol)
• -has capillaries(absorb amino acids and glucose)
• -thin epithelial walls (shorter distance faster diffusion)
• -digestive enzymes
• -microvilli (to increase surface area for max absorption)
• -mitochondria (for energy for active transport)

• -if glucose levels are high pancrease receptors secrete insulin hormone to stimulate the liver to change glucose into glycogen to bring blood glucose levels back to set point (homeostasis) 
• -if glucose levels are low pancrease receptors secrete glucagon hormone that stimulates the liver to convert glycogen into glucose to be used up by cells during respiration and bring blood glucose level back to set point (homeostasis)

• liver assimilates amino acids to form new enzymes, hormones, antibodies, cells 
• the excess amino acids are deaminated by removing the nitrogen containing part converting it into ammonia then into urea to be excreted

• -antibiotics
• -oral rehydration therapy

• -RBCs
• -WBCs
• -platelets
• -plasma

• -small (to pass through narrow blood capillaries)
• -elastic (to squeeze through narrow blood capillaries)
• -biconcave (to increase surface area to carry more o2)
• -no nucleus (for more space to carry more nucleus)
• made in bone marrow with life spam of 120 days

• -lymphocytes 
• release antibodies
• that bind to the antigen as they are complimentary
• they immobilize the antigen
• prevent its spreading
• then burst it 
• and collect it in lumps
• as vesicles
• -phagocytes
• engulf the vesicle 
• the ingest it
• the release enzymes to digest it

• blood loss 
• microbe infection

• blood clotting 
• platelets are stimulated
• thrombin enzyme catalyzes soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin  
• they form a mesh
• to trap RBCs
• and form new skin

• -thick walls
• -narrow lumen
• -elastic walls
• -muscle ring

• -valves
• -thin walls
• -wide lumen

• gaps(to allow tissue fluid to pass)
• thin walls
• large in number

• 1 oxygen demand increases
• 2 heart pumps more blood
• 3 to carry more oxygen and glucose
• 4 for more aerobic respiration
• 5 for more energy release 
• 6 for more muscle contraction
• 7 at a point of vigorous exercise
• 8 heart muscle can't supply the muscles with enough oxygen
• 9 so muscle respires anaerobically 
• 10 releasing lactic acid
• 11 which will be oxidized in the liver 
• 12 to become CO2 and H2O

left ventricle

Aorta

left ventricle

pulmonary vein

the increase if carbon dioxide concentration in the blood

• superior vena cava
• inferior vena cava

pulmonary artery

pulmonary vein

aorta

hepatic artery

hepatic vein

renal artery

renal vein

coronary artery

the blood goes through the heart twice in one complete circuit around the body

• -allows different blood pressures
• -prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
• -allows high blood pressure
• -allows high metabolic activity in mammals

• -septum (to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood)
• - thick cardiac muscular walls
• -thicker left ventricle (to be able to pump blood to the whole body)
• -pacemaker(that sends impulses from the brain for the heart to contract)
• -valves (to prevent blood backflow)

• left atrium fills with blood
• left atrium contracts bicuspid valve opens
• semilunar valve closes

atrioventricular valves (bicuspid and tricuspid)valves close

prevent the backflow of blood from ventricle to atrium

prevent backflow of blood from arteries to ventreicles

• -measure pulse from wrist and repeat a couple of times
• -use stethoscope to hear the sound of the valves closing
• -ECG every peak is a pump

• -coronary artery is blocked due to fat deficit
• -so heart doesn't get enough oxygen and glucose
• -so heart doesn't respire aerobically but respires anaerobically
• -causing lactic  acid build up 
• -causing a thrombus (heart attack)

• excessive fat intake
• excessive salt
• excessive sugar
• smoking 
• genetics

chemical reaction that changes nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy using oxygen

• oxygen + glucose---> energy+ carbon dioxide+ water
• 6O2 + C6H12O6 --->E + 6CO2 + 6H2O

• -protein synthesis
• -maintain metabolic reaction
• -keep body temperature
• -active transport 
• -nerve impulse
• -muscle contraction

release of low amount of energy due to incomplete breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen

glucose ----> lactic acid + small amount of energy

• -78% nitrogen in         -78%nitrogen out
• -0.04% CO2 in            -4% CO2 out
• -21% O2  in                -16%O2 out

• -after fertilization zygote is formed 
• -zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells called embryo
• -embryo moves by cillia and peristalsis to be implanted in uterine lining

fusion of the nuclei of the male haploid sperm and the nuclei of the female haploid ova to form a diploid zygote

• -increase lung capacity
• -increase muscle growth 
• -increase bone and limb growth

• -through the placenta 
• -during birth

• -from pituitary gland in brain
• *FSH
• stimulates maturation and development of follicle 
• stimulate oestrogen 
• -from ovary grafian follicle 
• *oestrogen
• inhibit FSH
• to stop follicle development 
• stimulated uterine lining repair
• stimulate LH
• -from pituitary gland in brian
• *LH
• stimulate ovulation
• stimulate progestrone 
• -from yellow body (corpus luteum)
• *Progestrone
• inhibit FSH 
• inhibit LH 
• maintains thick endometrium
• stops menses
• stimulates mammary gland for lactation

• -testes and ovary reduction and division by meiosis to form haploid gametes
• -the haploid nuclei of the ova fuses with haploid nuclei of sperm to form diploid zygote

holds testes outside the body as sperm needs lower than body temp to be produced

• -secretes muccus to create medium for sperm
• -dilates during labour

• - sexual intercourse (exchange of bodily fluid)
• - blood transfusion
• - infected needle 
• - personal belongings

• -use a condom
• -use femdom
• -test before sexual intercourse

• -secretes muccus to facilitate penis entry
• -secretes acid to kill bacteria
• -site of speerm deposition

• -excretion
• -nutrition
• -prevent mixing of fetal and maternal blood
• -gas exchange 
• -secretes progestrone

site of fertilization

• -produced in tested
• -stored in epididymis 
• -spermduct 
• -prostate gland 
• -ejaculated out of penis

• -sugar
• -mucus
• -alakali

rubber sheath inserted over the male penis to prevent the deposition of the sperm in the femal's vagina

• *amniotic sac
• -maintains suitable temperature for the fetus
• -sterlizes pathway
• -acts as lubricant
• -facilitates the movement of the fetus

M

3 days

testosterone

oestrogen

Removal waste products of metabolism, excess substance and toxic material

• Avoid accumulation of waste
• Removal of toxics products of metabolism
• Homeostasis to remove excess
• Osmoregulation

• -iodine solution
• Turns from yellowish brown to blue black

• Benedict’s solution
• From blue Turns GYOB
• Green
• Yellow
• Orange
• Brick red

• Biuret
• Turns from blue to lilac

• Ethanol
• Turns turbid and milky

The process in which light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water to oxygen and glucose

• Respiration
• Converted to starch to be stored in root
• Converted to sucrose to be carried to parts that don’t make own food
• Converted to cellulose to make cell wall

Faster rate

Lower rate compensation point rate of respiration is equal to rate of photosynthesis so no gasses produced

• Transparent to let light through
• Lens to bend light
• Cuticle to prevent water loss

• 1 palisade
• 2 spongy
• 3 Guard call

To allow for circulation and diffusion of gasses

• Excess nitrogen fertiliser is used and washed away by rain
• Causing increase in growth of plants by the water Algae bloom
• Algae bloom blocks light from reaching aquatic plants preventing them prim photosynthesis causing them to die
• Decomposers increase and consume all oxygen in the water by aerobic respiration killing aquatic organisms

• Acts as solvent
• Activates enzymes
• Forms Part of cytoplasm and vacuole
• Keeps cell turgid
• Photosynthesis

Water is absorbed by root hair cell then enters the cortex of the root then the vascular bundle of the root then carried by the the xylem of the root to the xylem of the stem to the xylem of the leaf to reach mesothelioma layer the. Transpired out of the stomata by evaporation and diffusion

The evaporation of water at the surface of mesophyll cell followed by loss of water vapour from the plant leaves through the stomata

As air current causes water vapour to move from the surface of the leaf giving more chance for water vapour to move outside the leaf.

• Increase in number of stomata
• Higher exposed surface area
• Thin cuticle
• Increase air spaces

• Cover plant shoot with polythene bag
• Water droplets condense on the surface of the inner wall of the bag
• Anhydrous copper sulfate turns from white to blue

• Water loses more water then it gains
• Transpiration rate is higher than water uptake rate

Movement if sucrose and amino acids from regions of storage and production to regions of utilisation

Amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per beat

• Amount of blood pumped out of left ventricle per minute
• Stroke volume x heart rate = cardiac output

• -Blood enters renal artery at high blood pressure contains oxygen glucose amino acids salts water urea and uric acid
• -ultra filtration takes place at the beginning of the nephron sending back insoluble substances such as proteins, plasma proteins and RBCs
• -filtrate passes through contains soluble substances
• - selective reabsorption takes place sending back glucose amino acids some salts and some water back to the blood
• - urine is formed at the end of the nephron contains urea uric acid salt and water
• -urine passes through the ureter to the bladder and out of the body through the urethra

A chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood which alters the activity of one or more target organs

• Adrenal glands
• 3F hormone (fight fright flight)

• Increase blood pressure
• Increase heart rate
• Increase breathing rate
• Dilated pupils
• Constricts blood vessel of skin and digestive system to increase blood flow to muscles

• Brain
• Outer layer : grey matter
• Inner layer: dark matter
• Spinal cord
• Outer layer: white matter
• Inner layer: grey matter

• Prevent leakage of impulse
• Faster impulse
• Protects neurons
• Acts as insulator

• Sends impulse from sensory organ(receptor) to brain
• - short axon
• -long dendrite
• -cell body in the middle

• Sends impulses from brain to effector
• -long axon
• -short branched dendrite
• -cell body at the end

Wave of electrical pulse that travels in the nerve fibres at very high sped and in one direction only

Junction between 2 neurons that insures one directional flow

• Dim light:
• radial contract
• Circular relax
• Bright light:
• Radial relax
• Circular contract

• Near
• Ciliary contract
• Suspensory slacken
• Far
• ciliary contracts
• Suspensory tense

• Nervous
• Made of Neurons
• Transmitted by electrical impulses in the nerves
• Very high speed
• Short term
• Localised
• Hormone
• Made of glands
• Transmitted by blood in form of chemicals
• Slower speed
• Wide spread

• Pain receptor
• Sensory neuron
• Relay neuron in spinal cord
• Motor neuron
• Effector

• Survival value
• Learning valuable skills

Rapid Involuntary response to stimuli

• Auxins are plant growth hormone
• Found at the top of the shoot
• Destroyed by light
• Diffuse to the darker side
• Stimulate elongation
• Towards sunlight

• Auxins are plant growth hormones
• Found at the top of the root
• Diffuse to the lower side
• Inhibit elongation
• grow towards gravity

• Auxins are plant growth hormones fl
• Found at the tip of the shoot
• Diffuse to the lower side
• stimulate elongation
• Away from sunlight

• Auxins are plant growth hormone
• found at the tip of the root
• Destroyed by light
• Diffuse to the darker side
• Inhibit elongation
• Away from sunlight

Organs that are a group of receptor that responds to specific stimuli

• Prevents damaging of cell membrane
• Enzyme at optimum temperature
• Prevent enzyme denature
• Allows High metabolic activity in mamals

Sensory nerve that transmits impulse from the light receptor to the brain

Reduction and devision

• 2 parents
• Formation of gametes
• Non identical
• Variation

• Growth
• Repair
• Replacement of worn out cells
• Skin grafts

Protects the flower

• Unisexual needs cross pollination
• Bisexual can self pollinate

Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma

• -small in number of pollen
• -heavy pollen
• -stick stigma
• -Reproductive organs enclosed
• -guidelines
• -bright coloured petals
• -nectar

• -feathery sigma
• - anther hanging outside
• - large in number of pollen
• -light pollen

Pollen lands on stigma then digs pollen tube in the style then reaches the ovary enters and fuses with the ovule to form zygote that divides by mitosis to form embryo

• Ovary —-> fruit
• Ovule —-> seed
• Wall of ovary——> pericarp
• Wall of ovule ——> testa

• Oxygen
• Water
• Warmth

• Keeps cell turgid
• Support
• Prevent bursting

• Surrounds cell components
• Controls what goes in and out of the cell

• Controls cell activity
• Contains dna

• Supports organelle
• Contain food store

Converts dna into protein protein synthesis

Carries ribosomes

Contains chlorophyll and enzymes

• Contains ions
• Regulates water absorption
• Supports cell

Diffusion

• Anther——> pollen grains
• Ovary——-> ovule

The ability of living organisms to produce new offsprings to preserve the species and prevent extinction

Excess amino acids

Mouth

• Kills sperm
• Causes mutation
• Could pass off to offspring
• Could cause sterility
• Could damage the nucleus if the gametes

Kills lymphocytes

Passing of genes from generation to generation

Thread like structure if DNA contains genetic information in form of genes

A length of DNA that codes for protein

A difference between two individuals of the same species

• Several pairs of alleles
• Environment

• Mass
• Body size
• Height

Intermediate between 2 extremes

Limited number of distinct phenotypes with no extremes

• Not affected by environment
• 1 pair of allele only

• Tongue rolling ability
• Sex
• Blood group

• Chemical:
• Tobacco
• Mustard Gas
• Radiation:
• X-ray
• Gamma ray
• Cosmic ray

• A part of chromosome is snapped and lost
• Decrease or increase in number of chromosome
• Change in 1 or more chromosome

Change in an individual’s gene

• Meiosis
• Sexual intercourse
• Fertilisation
• Mutation

Unpredictable change in base sequence if DNA, gene or chromosome that results in change of phenotype and variation

As it is made of a protein and would be digested broken down to amino acids by pepsin if it was invested and wouldn’t be able to carry its function of stimulating ten liver to change glucose to glycogen

• Glucose
• Water
• Ions
• Sodium
• Potassium

The process of choosing the best varieties that are well adapted and allow them to reproduce

• Don’t adapt—-> die
• Adapt—->survive—-> reproduce—-> pass allele to offspring ——> increase Fittnes

• Remove anther of 1st selected plant before maturation to prevent self pollination
• Cover in plastic bag ti prevent any pollen from reaching stigma
• Collect pollen grains from 2nd selected flower after maturation
• Dust pollen grains of 2nd on the stigma of the 1st flower and allow pollination
• Select seeds and germinate
• Select offspring with desired characteristics and breed together

• Select 2 parents with desired characteristics
• Cross and breed them together
• Chose 2 offspring’s with desired characteristics
• Cross and breed them together
• Repeat process over generations
• Till 100% offsprings have desired characteristics

Tiny organism only seen under microscope

Disorder or malfunction in the body

Microorganism that causes diseases

The entry of a pathogen into the body

• Through bodily fluids (sexual intercourse)
• Contaminated needles

• Water
• Air
• Contaminated surfaces and food
• Animal waste

Disease caused by pathogen and can be transmitted from one organism to the other

• Mechanical:
• Skin
• Hair in the nose
• Chemical:
• Mucus
• HCL
• Cells:
• Lymphocytes
• Phagocytes
• Vaccination:
• Injection of dead or dormant antigen to build immunity by memory cells

• Personal hygiene:
• Shower
• Brush teeth
• Wash hands before cooking and eating
• Sewage treatment:
• Remove urine faeces microbes toilet paper using proper method from sewage water
• Food:
• Cover food
• Avoid coughing
• Cool well
• Keep hair away from food

Calorometer

Spongy mesophyll

action done by organism or part of it that results in change of shape

the ability to sense and detect changes to the internal or external (stimuli) environment and respond

permanent increase in size and dry mass by increase in cell size, number or both

process of making more of the same kind

taking in of nutrient containing energy for growth, repair and development

sorting living organism into groups according to their shared features

a group of organisms with common features and can bread together to produce offspring

• -facilitate study of living organisms
• -facilitate identification of living organism

• internationally agreed system in which the
• scientific name of an organism is made up of two
• parts showing the genus and species

• kingdom
• phylum
• class
• order
• family 
• genus
• species

• the Genus beginning in capital letter
• the species in small
• in latin
• italic or underlined

• Homo sapiens
• (Homo) genus
• (sapiens) species

living organism with vertebral backbone or backbone

• -fish
• -amphibians
• -reptiles
• -mammals
• -birds

• -streamline shape
• -scales for protection
• -gills for breathing
• -different colours for camouflage 
• -lateral line for sensation

• -dry scaly skin
• -body divided into (head, neck, trunk, tail)
• -ear drums deep inside the head
• -short weak limbs to slide usually 4
• -cold blooded

• bony
• -small
• -mouth at front of the head
• -gill cover(opercullum)
• cartilaginous
• -large
• mouth on ventral surface
• gill slit (no opercullum)

• -fur/hair
• -mammary glands
• -external ear flaps
• -4 limbs
• -warm blooded
• -teeth

having internal mechanism that keeps constant internal temperatrure

• -beaks according to food 
• -feathers for lower density and insulation
• -tail to control direction
• -forelimb adapted into wings
• -waterproof oil to not absorb water
• -ear drum deep into the head
• -lay hard shelled eggs

• -moist skin
• -4 limbs
• -external ear drums
• -nostrils on top of the head
• -males have dark area under the jaw (vocal sac)
• -protruded eye (to see under water)
• -lay egg in jelly coatr
• tadpoles
• -tail
• -external gills
• -stream line shape