Research Test 1 Review

Structured process of investing facts and theories and exploring connections

ways of looking at the world that define both problems and range of legitimate evidence of contributes to solutions

• -Tradition
• -Authority
• -Trail and Error
• -Logical Reasoning
• -Scientific Method

• -common foundation for communication and interaction within a society or
• profession

• Belief system, inherit knowledge and accept
• precedent w/o external validation

• Problems – not evaluated for validity, tested
• against better alternatives, sole reliance on precedent as reason

-expertise of specialist, specialized training or experience

Use them w/o evidence

Use when evidence is unavailable

• Jeopardize professional responsibilities if not
• scientifically documented

Attempts one solution and evaluates its effect

• -If effects reasonable then adopted
• -If not, another solution is tried
• -No other basis for making a decision
• -Haphazard and unsystematic nature
• -Knowledge obtained usually not shared, making it
• inaccessible to others

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Acceptance of a general proposition or remise and subsequent inferences.

• -Greater the accuracy of premise = greater accuracy of conclusion
• -Produces a testable hypothesis
• -Limitations - dependent on truth of its premise
• -Based on existing knowledge = cannot be source of new knowledge

• Developing generalizations from specific observations
• -Facts gathered on a sample of events could lead to inferences about the whole
• -Limitation - quality based on specific observations
• -Need to observe all possible examples of event
• -Incomplete observations

Incorporating elements of deductions and induction in a systematic and controlled analysis of phenomena

Measurements of outcomes using numerical data under standardized conditions

• Deep understanding of phenomenon through narrative description
• -Obtained under less structured conditions
• -Measurements – open ended questions, interviews,
• observations
• -Describe state of conditions or associations,
• formulate theory, or general hypothesis

• Obtain empirical data used to develop, refine, or test a theory
• -Acquisition of new knowledge w/o reference
• -“bench research”
• -goal – intellectual curiosity, new knowledge for
• own sake

• Immediate practical problems w/ functional applications and testing the theories that direct practice
• -Most clinical research

Application of basic scientific findings to clinicaly relevant issues and generating scientific questions based on clinical dilemmas.

• Manipulates and controls one or more variables and observes results on other variables.
• -Purpose: Compare conditions or intervention groups, cause-and-effect relationship
• -Randomized Controlled Trial - "Gold Standard'

• Generally more descriptive or exploratory in nature
• -No direct control of variables

• Examines a phenomenon of interest and explores its dimensions
• -How it relates to other factors
• -Generate relationships and predictions
• -Methodological studies - correlational methods to demonstrate reliability and validity

Attempts to describe a group of individuals on a set of variables to document their characteristics

Comprehensive analysis of full range of literature on a particular topic, intervention, diagnostic test, or prognostic factors

Statistically combining findings from several studies to obtain a summary analysis

The group of individuals to which the results of the study will apply

• -Will support the research question
• -Guide decisions designing the study
• -Provide basis for interpreting results

Represent a concept, can have more than 1 value

Predictor variables, predict or cause a given outcome

Outcome variable, response or effect that varies depending on independent variable

Defines a variable according to its unique meaning within a study

Describe the study's purpose

A declarative statement that predicts the relationship between the independent and dependent variables and specifying the population that will be studied

Based on theoretical premise, allowing clinician to predict outsomes

Based on trends, regularities, patterns, or relationships

States researcher's true expectations of results

Express no difference or no relationship between ind. and dep. variables

1 ind. and dep. variable

More than 1 ind. or dep. variable

• Report or document provided directly by the person who authored it
• -Mostly professional journals

• Description or review of 1 or more studies presented by someone other than the original author.
• -Textbooks, newspapers
• -Tend to provide insufficient, inaccurate, or biased info

• Theoretically take on any value to represent quantities of characteristics according to certain rules
• -50.5 degrees, 50.3 degrees

• Whole units
• -1,7,5

• Assign number to qualitative variables
• -e.g. Gender = Male, Female

Exactness of measure

• Associated with some value or vales that are assumed to represent original variable
• -Muscular strength- broken down into type of contractions, strain resistance, joint position, etc.

• Classifactory scale
• -Categorize subjects e.g., Male = 1, Female =2

• Categorizes by rank ordered on the basis of operationally defined characteristics or property
• -Does not know actual distance between units

• Rank order characteristics of ordinal but also demonstrates known and equal distance or intervals between units of measure
• -e.g. no absolute zero

Interval scale with absolute zero

• Extent to which a measurement is consistent and free from error
• -Conceptualized as reproducibility or dependability

Assures that a test is measuring what it is intended to measure

The difference between the true value and the observed value

• Predictable errors of measurement
• -Occur in one direction - Over or under estimating

Measurements due to change and can affect a subject's score in an unpredictable way from trial to trial

Extremes move closer to mean with more trials

A measure of variability or differences among scores within a sample

• 0.0 = no reliability
• 1.0 = perfect reliability

• Establish that an instrument is capable of measuring a variable with consistency
• -e.g. Identical test on two separate occasions

Human observer/rater part of the measurement system

Stability of data recorded by one individual across two or more trials

Variation between two or more raters who measure the same group of subjects

Alternative to test-retest reliability

Extent to which items measure various aspects of the same characterisitcs and nothing else

• Results define the universe
• -Testing condtions must be the same

Relation to a set of specific testing conditions

Define the amount of change in a variable that must be achieved to reflect a true difference

Reliability established on subjects from one population cannot automatically be attributed to other populations

Instrument measures what it is intended to measure

Instrument is appropriate for the test (measures item of interest)

The instrument appears to test what it is supposed to and plausible method

• Adequacy with which this universe is sampled by a test
• -Does not contain all the elements that reflect the variable being studied
• -Free of influences of factors irrelevant to purpose of study

• Most practical and objective approach
• -e.g. Investigate HR (target test) as indicatry O₂ consumption (criterion measure)

• Measurement to be validated and criterion measure taken relatively same time
• -Both reflect same score
• -Useful for testing new/untested tools

Establish a measure that's valid predictor of futur criterion score

• Ability of instrument to measure an abstract concept
• -Convergent: 2 measures on the same phenomenon will have similar test results
• -Discriminant: 2 measures on the same phenomenon will have different results
• -Factor Analysis: construct contains 1 or more underlying dimensions or different theoretical components

• Difference between outcome and initial scores
• -Shows/demonstrates change

the lowest amount that can be considered change

• Fixed standard that represents acceptable model or level of performance
• -Examine proficiency or performance of skill
• -Norm-referenced - "Normal" values determined by testing large populations of certain profiles
• -Standard deviation
• -Establish placement for diagnosis

Trying out previously developed test on a new group of characteristics as close as possible to original