Intro to Anatomy

thin layer of connective tissue that wraps/packs/insulates parts of the body

• Superficial- loose connective tissue layer immediately below the skin containing fat, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics.
• Deep- dense organized connective tissue layer around muscles + bones + blood vessels + nerves

• Investing fascia - surrounds individual muscles
• Intermuscular Septa - divides muscles into groups/compartments with common function
• Retinaculum - really thick, holds tendons in place during joint movement

sourrounds indiv. muscules and nuerovasc. bundles

divide muscles into groups or compartments with common function

hold tendons in place during joint movement, really thick

closed sacs containing fluids, prevent friction and enable structures to move freely over one another

tough band of fibrous connective tissue, connects muscle to bone, capable of withstanding tension

fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones, aka articular ligament

• Peritoneal (a fold of peritoneium or other membranes)
• Fetal Remnant (remnants of a fetal tubular structure)
• Periodontal Ligament

Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth

movements, maintainence of body posture, production of heat

• Tonic contraction: slgiht contraction aka muscle tone, no movement/active resistance produced just gives the muscle firmness + assists with stability of joints + posture
• Phasic contraction: two types
• isometric contraction (muscle length remains same even tho muscle tension is above tonic levels)
• isotonic contraction - muscle length changes to produce movement -- concentric (muscle shortens for movement) + eccentric (muscle relaxes and lengthens)

aka agonist, responsible for producing a specific movement of the body

steadies the proximal parts of a limb through isometric contraction while movements are occuring in distal parts

complements action of prime mover (ex. may prevent movement of intervening joints)

• opposes the action of prime mover
• as prime mover contracts, antagonist progessively relaxes > produces smooth movement

support, movement, storage of minerals, blood cell formation

• Long bones (femur, humerus)
• Short Bones (wrist, ankle)
• Flat Bones (skull, sternum)
• Irregular Bones (spine, pelvis, sphenoid, ethmoid)
• Sesamoid bones (found inside tendons, patella)

shaft of long bone

• ends of long bone
• exterior is compact bone, interior is spongy bone
• articular cartilage covers joint surface and absorbs stress

remnant of epiphyseal plate in adults (growth plate in the metaphysis at ends of long bone)

Smooth flat area, usually covered with cartilage

passage through a bone

thorn-like process

hollow or depressed area

rounded process

• spool-like articular process
• process that acts as a pulley

indentation at edge of a bone

projection of bone

large blunt elevation

small, round, articular head

rounded, knuckle-like articular area, usually in pairs

eminence superior to a condyle

elongated depression

• nutrient arteries enter through nutrient foramina > divide into longitudinal branches
• Periosteal arteries supply compact bone of periosteum
• metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries supply their areas

• Periosteum is supplied by sensory nerves called periosteal nerves
• Vasomotor nerves supply blood vessels regulating blood flow

the location/space between bones where they connect

allow movement, provide mechanical support

• Fibrous (synarthroses) = immovable (ex. skull)
• Cartilaginous (amphiarthroses) = slightly movable (ex. vertebral joint)
• Synovial (diarthroses) = freely movable (ex. ball+socket, hinge)

• Sutures (between bones of skill)
• Syndesmosomes (found b/w long bones of body, like radius and ulna in arm, they are movable unlike other fibrous joints)
• Gomphosis (joint b/w root of a tooth and the sockets in the maxilla or mandible)

allow for only a little movement, like in spine or ribs. Ex. growth plates b/w ossification centers in long bones

aka symphyses, fibrocartilaginous and hyaline joints usually occurring in the midline. Ex. manubriosternal joint, intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis

• Outer fibrous capsule and inner synovial membrane
• synovial fluid present
• bursae - sacs of fluid

• 1. Plane joint 
• 2. Hinge Joint
• 3. Saddle Joint
• 4. Condyloid
• 5. Ball and Socket
• 6. Pivot Joint

• Permit gliding or sliding movements, opposed surfaces of the bone are flat, small joints
• Ex. AC joint

• permits flexion & extension, movements that occur in sagittal plane only
• Ex. elbow joint, knee joint

• permit abduction, adduction, flexion, extension & circumduction. Allow movement in 2 planes, frontal & sagittal
• Ex. CMC of thumb

• permit flexion & extension + abduction/adduction, circumduction is restricted. Movement in sagittal plane is greater/freer than in other plane.
• Ex. metacarpophalangeal joints

• movement in multiple axes + planes
• Ex, hip, shoulder

• permit rotation around central axis, uniaxial, rounded process of bone rotates within a sleeve or ring
• Ex. atlantoaxial joint

transports fluids

cardiovasc + lymphatic

veins, arteries, capillaries

arterioles

• tunica intima - single layer of epithelial cells = endothelium
• tunica media - mostly smooth muscle
• tunica externa - outer connective tissue layer/sheath

• arteries - smooth muscle, so it can determine BP bc of its tone
• veins - no smooth muscle, thin walled

• aorta
• braciacephalic trunk
• subclavian
• pulmonary trunk

walls are mostly smooth muscle so they are able to vasoconstrict and regulate the flow of blood

• have thick muscular walls so the degree of tonus/firmness in the walls can determine blood pressure
• above normal tonus = hypertension

anastamoses

large capacity for expansion

• 20 - arteries
• 80 - veins

muscle of limb contracts > venous valves push blood toward the heart

• when 2 or more smaller veins surround an artery within a common vascular sheath
• usually happens in the limbs

arteriovenous anastamoses = when arteries and veins connect with each other

• ex. fingers - direct connection b/w small arterioles and venules
• oxyg + deoxyg blood mix here but since blood flows from higher > lower BP, it is fine for oxyg blood to mix with deoxyg blood but NOT good the other way around

• hardening of arteries
• most common cause is atherosclerosis = fat blocking the arteries

• ischemia
• when atheroma eventually bursts > blood clot/thrombus forms > can occlude the artery > can cause infarction

• drains extra tissue fluid and returns fluid to heart
• removes waste products + debris
• major part of bodys defense system
• helps large molcules enter the blood (like hormones and lipids)

• RUQ
• right side of head + necl + thorax + right upper limb

rest of the body

• cisterna chyli
• a dilated collecting sac

right venous angle (right internal jugular + right subclavian veins)

left venous angle (left internal jugular + left subclavian veins)

• CNS (brain and spinal cord)
• PNS (cranial nerves + spinal nerves)

• efferent division - send signals to muscles/glands
• afferent division - receive signals from sensory receptors

• autonomic - involuntary, impusles from CNS > cardiac + smooth muscles + glands
• somatic - voluntary, impulses from CNS > skeletal muscles

• sensory - pseudounipolar, peripheral process + central process
• multipolar motor - 2+ dendrites, 1 axons, most common, all motor neurons controlling skeletal muscle are multipolar

• peripheral - conduct impulses from organ > cell body
• central - from cell body > CNS

• non-excitable cells that support + insulate + nourish the neurons
• oligodendroglia + astrocytes + ependymal cells + microglia

bundle of nerve fibers/axons in CNS that connect neighboring or distant nuclei of cerebral cortex

• nerve cell bodies = gray matter (outside)
• tract systems = form white matter (inside)

axon + its neurolemma + surrounding endoneurial connective tissue

• bundle of nerve fibers outside CNS
• connective tissue covering that surrounds and binds nerve fibers
• blood vessels that nourish nerve fibers + coverings

• endoneurium- thin connective tissue, innermost, around neurilemma cells + axons
• perineurum- middle, dense connective tissue, encloses fascicle of nerve fibers
• epineurium - outer, thick connective tissue sheath, fatty tissue + blood vessels + lymphatics

provides effective barrier against penetration by foreign substances

31 pairs

• dermatome - portion of skin innervated by 1 spinal nerve
• myotome - group of muscles innervated by 1 spinal nerve

• smooth muscle
• gland
• modified cardiac muscle

• symp - every cell in body, internal organs
• parasymp - only internal organs + head, NOT limbs

• dilates pupil
• ex. cocaine

• goosebumps
• vasoconstriction of skin, lips, fingers (turn blue)
• promotes sweating

• increases rate + strength of contraction
• inhibits effect of parasymp NS on coronary vessels > allows for dilation

inhibits effect of parasymp NS > bronchodilation > reduced secretion > max air exchange allowed

• inhibits peristlsis
• constricts blood vesselsn to digestive tract > to make blood available to skeletal muscle
• contracts internal anal sphincter to aid fecal incontinence

promotes breakdown of glyogen > glucose = increased energy

• vasoconstriction of renal vessels > slows urine formation
• internal sphincter of bladder contracts > maintain urinary incontinence

causes ejaculation + vasoconstriction > remission of erection

• constricts pupil (protects from bright light)
• contracts ciliary muscle > lens thickens for near vision

no effect (doesnt reach it)

• decreases rate + strength of contraction = conserves energy
• constricts coronary vessels bc less demand

• constricts bronchi = conserves energy
• promotes bronchial secretion

• stimulates peristalsis + secretion of digestive juices
• contracts retum
• inhibits internal anal sphincter > causes defecation

• promotes building/conservation of glycogen
• increases secretion of bile

• inhibits contraction of internal sphincter
• contracts detrusor muscle of bladder wall > urination

produces engorgement = erection