Lecture 1-4 Self Study

Standing upright, head facing front, arms at side with palms forward

Divides the body into right/left halves

Divides the body into anterior/posterior portions

Divides the body into upper/lower portions

• Cephalad
• Towards the head

Transverse plane splits this from inferior

• Caudad
• Towards the feet

Transverse plane splits this from superior

• Ventral
• Near the front of the body

Coronal plane splits body from posterior

• Dorsal
• Near the back of the body

Coronal plane splits body from anterior

Towards the midline of the body

Further from the midline of the body

Towards the surface

Further from the surface of the skin

Toward the point of connection

Further from the point of connection

Laying facing up

Lying facing down

Increases the angle at the joint

Decreases the angle at the joint

• Moves away from the body
• On the hands, it is other fingers moving away from the middle finger

• Moves toward the body
• Fingers moves towards the middle finger

Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction

Head of a bone spins within the socket of another bone

• Medial (internal) or lateral (external)
• Pronation or supination

Movement in superior direction i.e. shoulder shrug up

Movement in inferior direction i.e. lower jaw

• Skin
• Fascia
• Muscle
• Bone
• Fat

Covers the body externally and has three layers (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis)

Specializations include the superficial and deep layers of tissue below the skin

Consists of skeletal, smooth and cardiac divisions

Skeleton consists of an axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

• Skull
• Spine
• Thorax

Upper and lower limbs

Panniculus adiposis or hypodermis

The panniculus adiposis along with its underlying superficial membranous fascia

1.8 square meters

• Protection: via loose pliable covering, which is generally thicker on extensor surfaces
• Absorption: Vitamin D is stored in the skin, and UV light allows release
• Sensation: temperature regulation
• Excretion: through sweating, non-protein nitrogen, a by-product of liver may be eliminated

• Facilitates absorption of Ca⁺⁺ from the GI tract
• Ca⁺⁺ is an important bone constituent

Outer layer which consists of vegetative intermitotics (cells that continuously reproduce) with keratinized layer

A protein, which is high in sulfur content

Has 2 layers- superficial (papillary layer) and deep (reticular layer)

Consists of papillae that project into the epidermis and carry vasculature to the epidermis

Consists of a network of collagen elastic fibers

• Epidermis
• Dermis
• Tela Subcutanea

• Hypodermis
• Stratum fibrosum- surrounds exterior of muscle and is superficial to muscle

Layer of fat (panniculus adiposis)

• Surrounds exterior of muscle and is superficial to muscle
• aka superficial fascia

• Distribute over the skin and is absent on glabrous surfaces (lips)
• Contained within the follicle (tube of infolding epidermis)
• Produced at the base of the follicle and consists of keratinized epithelium

• Smooth muscle coursing from the root of the hair follicle to the dermis
• Muscle is under sympathetic contral and contraction produces piloerection and squeezing of the heir follicle (goose bumps)

• Ubiquitous, but absent in the palm of the hands and soles of the feet
• Sebum production clogs the hair follicle and produces acne
• Oily secretion contains cell parts and because the entire secretory cell is lost also called holocrine gland

• Ubiquitous, but absent in the glans penis and labia minora
• Termed eccrine gland bc none of the cell is secreted
• Secretions are thin, watery, and high in NaCl 
• Glands under sympathetic control

Sweat glands enlarged around the anus and armpit which suggests that only part of the cell is secreted

Keratinized epithelium produced at the base of the nail bed

Modified sweat gland

• Superior: 2nd or 3rd rib
• Inferior: 6th or 7th costal cartilage
• Lateral: Anterior axillary fold
• Medial: Lateral border of sternum

• Parenchyma (functional part)
• Stroma (supportive, connective tissue part)

• Important because of the prevalence of breast cancer in women
• Cancer follows lymphatic channels to axillary nodes

• Surgery done after breast biopsy
• Breast axillary lymph nodes and part of the pectoralis major is removed

• Lateral group (around axillary artery)
• Central group
• Pectoral group
• Subscapular group
• Apical group

• Smooth
• Cardiac
• Skeletal

• Walls of hollow viscera (GI tract, blood vessels)
• Innervation via autonomic nervous system

• Myocardium
• No innervation needed, except for regulation of rate/contractile strength
• Has inherent contractility

• Voluntary
• 40% of body mass in normal adults and is the type of muscle attached to the skeleton for moving and supporting joints

• Muscle always pulls a joint through an excursion 
• Muscle may contract up to 57% of its resting length

• Movements of joints generally represent combined actions of several muscles:
• -Prime mover
• -Synergists
• -Fixators
• -Antagonists

• Certain muscles whose main function is to produce a specific action
• Ex: prime mover for elbow flexion is brachialis

Assist prime mover, and compliment its action

Immobilize a joint while another joint is activated

• Stabilize a joint while the opposite prime movers are contracting, thus preventing undesired actions (dislocation) during movement of the joint
• Ex: while flexors are flexing, extensors are providing stabilization for joints being flexed

• A muscle fiber comprised of muscle cells
• Fibers multinucleated with nuclei located at the periphery of the fiber (syncytial arrangment)

• Whole sheath around a muscle 
• Synonymous with deep fascia, which is connective tissue holding the muscle fibers together 
• Consists of collagenous fibers

• Cause a joint to move
• Muscle must attach to bones around the joint through these.
• Formed by aggregation of sarcolemma, which is the cell membrane surrounding the muscle fibers

• Attachment of muscles to each other
• Relatively avascular

Featherlike appearance of the muscle fibers approaching tendons

• Unipennate
• Bipennate
• Circumpennate
• Multipennate

Muscle fibers approach tendon from one side

Muscle fibers approach tendon from 2 directions in flat plane

Muscle fibers approach tendon from all directions

Multiples of unipennate, bipennate, circumpennate

The sensory aspect of input into the nervous system regarding the status of a muscle at any given time

• Degree of contraction of muscles
• State of tension in the tendon
• Sensory information from joints - monitors the position of the limbs in space, and is necessary for coordination of movement

• Support of the body
• Movement (levers)
• Blood producers (from red bone marrow)
• Storage (Ca⁺⁺, PO₄)

• Long: humerus, femur
• Short: carpals, tarsals
• Flat: cranium
• Sesamoid: patella
• Wormian: in sutures of the skull
• Irregular: vertebrae

• Intramembranous ossification
• Endochondral ossification

Fibrous membrane, which forms intramembranous bone, typified by the bones of the skull

Cartilage, which forms endochondral bone as typified by the long bones

• 1. Starts with dens membrane from mesoderm
• 2. Bone forming cells, or osteoblasts, produce osteoid tissue which becomes impregnated with (Ca⁺⁺ and PO₄) to form a matrix
• 3. Periosteum surrounds dense membrane, after osteoblasts from the inner surface of the matrix- periosteum layer deposit bone

• Spongy bone- random matrix with soft, open spaces which forms the interior of the bone (inner table)
• Compact bone- parallel matrix which is hard and dense, that forms the exterior surface of the bone (outer table)

• 1. Cartilaginous mold of the bone forms initially in the developing embryo
• 2. Osteoblasts invade the cartilaginous mold and lay down osteoid, with subsequent impregnation by Ca++ and PO4 matrix
• 3. Gradually the cartilage is replaced by bone; however, cartilage persists at the ends of the bone as epiphyseal plates

• Form of dwarfism that is caused by mutation in fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3).
• In normal development it has a negative regulatory effect on bone groth. In this, the mutated form of the receptor is constitutively active and leads to severly shortened bones

• Granular material found within the spongy portion of bones which form blood cells
• Red in children with growth and development and is only retained in certain bones

• Red Marrow
• Yellow Marrow

• Sternum, ribs
• Iliac crest
• Vertebral bodies

• Long bones- nonfunctional, fatty tissue and has replaced
• Red marrow to occupy the "marrow cavity"