Quick Metabolism Summary:
Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm)
-Uses Carbs (glucose)
-No oxygen needed
- Produces LOW ATP ( only dos remember)
Quick Metabolism Summary: (if your cells need a HIGH metabolic use)
TCA/ ETC (in Mitochondria)
-Uses Carbs, Fatty Acids, Amino Acids
-Requires Oxygen
-Produces HIGH ATP
When 2 organisms interact or combine to the benefit of each other.
----> MAY result in a new "entity"
SYMBIOSIS
PROKARYOTES:
ANCIENT ARCHAEA
~ 6,000 genes
SPECIALTY- little energy from alot of sources
-AN-Aerobic
Process
Glycolysis (remember AN-aerobic)
-Low ATP
Prokaryotes:
Ancient Bacteria
~ 3,000 genes
Speciality- alot of energy from little bit of sources
- AEROBIC
Process:
TCA cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
-HIGH ATP
Define Symbiosis
2 organisms interact or combine to the benefit of each other
Symbiosis:
Termite is an example of symbiosis… ugly white bug+prokaryote
What does the symbiosis of ancient archaea and anciet bacteria create?
Ancient Eurkaryota
Ancient Eurkaryota:
-Genome:~9,000 (from ancient archaea: ~6000genes and ancient bacteria= ~3000)
-Speciality= Alot of energy from a lot of sources ANAEROBIC or AEROBIC
Process:
High ATP via- Glycolysis, TCA, and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Ancestor to all modern Eukaryotes including all animal and plant cells
ANCIENT EUKARYOTA
Evidence of bacterial origin (MITOCHONDRION/ia)
1. Circular DNA (have their own DNA)
2. Reproduce by binary fission (like self replication)
3. Double Membrane (original membrane with a new one wrapped around it)
How many genes in mitochodria?
37 genes BUT ~1500 genes needed to create mitochondrial proteins (most have relocated to the nucleus)
How do bacteria replicate?
Binary Fission (this is where Mitochondria get it from... remember symbiosis of ancient bacteria and ancient archaea)
Cells that have the HIGHEST metabolic need require MORE mitochondria
RBC have no mitochondria so how do they meet their metabolic needs?
Through glycolysis (anaerobic)
How many mitochondria per cell do WBC have?
~300 mitochondria (~10% of their cell volume)
How many mitochondria per cell do Liver cells have?
~1,000 mitochondria per cell (~20% of their cell volume)
How many mitochondria per cell do Cardiac or Skeletal muscle cells have?
~3,000 mitochondria per cell(~40% of their cell volume)
Which type of cells has the MOST mitochondria per cell?
Egg (~100, 000... replication... creating baby HEY women NEED ALOT)
How many mitochondria per cell do sperm cells have?
~100 (insignifcant compare to women's eggs because they only need enough to drive MOBILITY)
When egg and sperm join, all of the mitochondria from the sperm are destroyed via?
UBIQUITINATION (so only the mitochondria from the egg remains.... QUITTERS!!!!)
interferes with protein in Electron Transport chain
Decreased Mitochondrial Activity may be caused by what medications or toxic drugs?
Valproic Acid
Aspirin
Cyanide
Statins
Which drugs interfere with proteins in ETC?
Aspirin, Cyanic and Valproic Acid
STATINS cause decreased Mitochondrial Activity
-It can interfere with mitochondria
-Most common adverse event is muscle pain or fatigue
What are the 3 main causes of decreased mitochondrial activity?
1. Medication/ Toxic Drugs
2. Infections
3. Congenital disorders
Mitochondrial Disorders:
Symptoms
problems with HEART, KIDNEYS, BRAIN and Active Skeletal Muscle. (ALL have HIGH ATP demands)
Mitochondrial Disorders:
Diagnosis made ... if the following are found:
mtDNA mutations
Increased lactic acid
Increased proliferation of mitochondria
If mitochondrial is not working correctly why would it proliferate?
The cell is conpensating and making more because the ones there are only doing half their jobs
Mitochondrial Disorders:
Treatments:
Heart- anti-arrythmic meds
Brain- anti seizure meds
Skeletal muscles- Physical Therapy
To potentially reduce potential oxidants--- vitamins, coenzymes, and antioxidants
What is the MAJOR role of oxygen during the Electron Transport Chain?
final electron acceptor.
Electron Transport Chain: Overview
THE PLAYERS;
•NADH & FADH2 from Glycolysis, TCA prep & TCA
•Proteins of the ETC: Coenzymes & cytochromes transfer electrons through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. Some can act as H+ pumps
• Oxygen: final electron acceptor
As e- moves through ETC it may prematurely combine with O2... what is made?
SUPEROXIDE (e- + O2 --> O2- )
SuperOxide is a/an:
-Oxidant
-Free Radical
-Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Oxidant
a molecule that accepts an electron
Any molecule with a single unpaired electron
Free Radical
Wants to react with other molecules
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
A molecule that accepts an electron
Oxidant
Free Radical
Any molecule with a single unpaired electron
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
wants to react with other molecules
SUPEROXIDE : SO = O2-
Generation of SO is a normal occurrence in all cells
–95% of e- combine with H+ and O2 ---> H2O
–5% of e- combine with O2 ---> O2- = SO
What percent of electrons combine with oxygen prematurely to create SUPEROXIDE?
5%
Cells have ___________ mechanisms to elimante SO
antioxidant
Superoxide: Bad news
- If too many oxidants it can overwhelm the antioxidants
- If too few antioxidant it can't eliminate SO fast enough
May 2008 (10 year study results announced at Pediatric Academic Societies conference meeting)
500 (6month old babies)
Group A: given lower iron formula for 1 yr
Group B: given higher iron formula for 1 yr
10 years later:
Group A:
Group B: (the ones with the HIGHER iron formula)
-lower IQ
-lower spatial memory
-lower visual perception
-lower motor coordination
SO (O2-) catalyzed by SuperOxide Dismutase (SOD) to Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Bad: H2O2 is still an oxidant
Good: H2O2 not as dangerous as SO
In the prescence of Fe( or Cu) Hydrogen Peroxide is catalyzed to Hydroxyl Radical (OH)
Bad: OH is still an oxidant
SUPERbad: OH much worse than SO
Placed the following in order of most dangerous (1) to least dangerous (3):
Superoxide, Hydrogen peroxide, Hydrogen Radical
1. Hydrogen Radical (OH)
2. SO (O2-)
3. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
What enzyme is catalyzes Superoxide to Hydrogen Peroxide?
SuperOxide Dismutase (SOD)
O2- and OH are technically free radicals, and all 3 are ROS or oxidants
Overall oxidants can do Molecular Damage ---> Cellular Damage ---> Organ Damage
Some factors of Aging:
Telomeres Shortening: Chromosomes lose telomeres over time
Choronlogical Age: Risk factors increase over time
Glycation: Glucose sugar binds to and inhibits DNA, proteins and lipids (DUE TO OXIDANTS)
Oxidative Stress: Oxidants damage DNA, proteins and lipids
Some conditions that may entail free-radical injury
1. Antioxidant Enzymes
2. Iron sequestration
3. Free Radical Scavengers
Defense Type #1: ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES:
Name the 3 enzymes...
-SOD
-Glutathione Peroxidase
-Catalase
MOST Hydrogen Peroxide never gets converted to Hydroxyl Radical because of _______________
ANTIoxidant enzymes
SELENIUM- forms active center of Glutathione Peroxidase (GP), why is GP imporant?
Glutathione Peroxidase catalyzes Hydrogen Peroxide into 2 water molecules
Defense Type #1: antioxidant enzymes SuperOxide Dismutase (SOD)
- mice without SOD die of OXIDATIVE damage within 2 weeks
Defense Type #1: antioxidant enzymes Glutathione Peroxidase (GP)
-Catalyzes : Glutathione (GSH) + H2O2----> H2O + H2O
-Selenium: forms active center of GP enzyme
What antioxidant enzyme catalyzes hydrogen peroxide into 2 water molecules?