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Enzyme
(Protein)
- - Organic catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds up a reaction in cells due to it's particular shape
- - Add energy (heat)
- - Not changed or consumed in a reaction, only a small amount is needed & can be reused
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Catalyst
(Protein)
- - Reduces the energy needed to reach the activation state
- - Protein enzymes
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Substrate
(Enzyme/Protein)
- - The reactant an enzyme acts on
- - Binding of the substrate causes the enzyme to adjust it's shape slightly, leading to a better induced fit
- - Enzymes have grooves that substrate sit in becoming the active site
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Nucleic Acids
- - Store & transmit hereditary information
- - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- - Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- - Polymers called Polynucleotides
- - Monomers called Nucleotides
- - Each nucleotide consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, & a phosphate group
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(Nucleic Acid)
- - Direct synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) & through mRNA control protein synthesis
- - Provides directions for it's own replication
- - DNA molecule has 2 polynucleotides sprialing around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix
- - The 2 backbones run in opposite 5' to 3' directions
- - Form hydrogen bond 'A pairs with T' & 'G pairs with C'
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ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
(Nuclic Acid)
- - Primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
- - "Energy Currency"
- - Consists of an organic molecule - adenosine attached to a string of 3 phosphate groups
- - Energy is released from ATP when bond is broken
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Protein
- Protein Functions
- - Structural support/Storage/Movement
- - Messengers
- - Transport
- - Defense
- - Catalysis
- Composed of one or more polypeptides
- Shape of protein determines it's function
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Amino Acids
(Protein)
- Monomers of polypetides/protiens
- - Composed of a carboxy group, amino group, & an "r" group
- - "R" group makes the properties of the amino acid different
- - Cells use 20 amino acids to amke thousands of proteins
- (will give up a hydrogen making it COO-)
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Polypeptides
(Protein)
- -Polymer of amino acids, joined by a peptide bond to from a long chain
- - Unique linear sequence of amino acids
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Protein Structure
- 1. Primary structure: unique sequence of amino acids
- 2. Secondary structure: consists of coils & folds in the polypeptide chain
- 3. Tertiary structure: determined by interactions among various side chains ("R" group)
- 4. Quaternary structure: Results when a protein consist of multiple polypeptides
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Denaturation
(Protein)
- - Loss of normal shape by an enzyme so that it no longer functions
- - Alternation in pH, Salt concentration, temp & other enviornmental factors
- - Denature protein is biologically inactive
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Lipids
- - Compound that is insoluble in water
- - Utilized for energy storage, membranes, insulation, & protection
- - Hydrophobic
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Fats
(Lipids)
- - Constructed from 2 types of smaller molecles: glycerol & fatty acids
- - Major function of fats is energy storage
- - Saturated fats: saturated fatty acid, mostly animal fat, solid at room temp
- - Unsaturated fats: unsaturated fatty acid, plants & fish fats, liquid at room temp (double bonded, causes bending)
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Phospholipids
(Lipids)
- - molecule that form the bilayer of the cell's membranes
- - 2 fatty acids attached to glycerol & a phospate group
- - Polar head (hydrophilic)
- - Nonpolar tails (hydrophobic)
- - Assemble so that the polar heads are pointing outward & the nonpolar tails are pointing inward
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Triglycerides
(Lipids)
- - 3 fatty acids are joined to a glycerol by an ester linkage- Energy storage
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Steroids
(Lipids)
- - Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
- - Cholesterol: important steroid, component in animal cell membranes, precursor from which all other steriods are synthesized
- - Testosterone & Estrogen
- - Nonpolar: can go through cell membranes
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Carbohydrates
- - Serve as energy & building material
- - Include sugar & polymer of sugar
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Monosaccharide
(Carbohydrates)
- - Simplest carbohydrate/single (simple) sugars
- - Used for short term energy storage, serve as structural componets of larger organic molecules, & source of carbon
- - Classified by location of carbonyl group & by # of carbons in the carbon skeleton
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Disaccharides
(Carbohydrate)
- - Formed when a dehydration reaction joins 2 monosaccharide
- - This bond is called a glycosidic linkage
- - Lactose, Maltose, Sucrose (common table sugar)
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Polysaccharide
(Carbohydrate)
- - Complex carbohydrate, polymer of monosaccharides (long chains of simple sugar)
- - Storage & structral roles
- - Starch (storage polysaccharide of plants)
- - Glycogen (storage polysaccharide of animals)
- - Cellulose (component of the tough wall of plant cells)
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Monomer
- - Repeated units are small molecules (building blocks)
- - Connected by Covalent bonds that form through the loss of a water molecule
- Monosaccharide
- Glycerol & Fatty acid
- Amino Acid
- Nucleotide
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Polymers
- - A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
- - Built from monomers
- Polysaccharide (carbohydrates)
- Lipid
- Protein
- Nucleic Acid
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Carbon
- - Unique in it's ability to form large, complex, & dicerse molecules
- - Carbon compounds since it only needs 4 electrons it can make single, double, or triple bonds
- - Can form long chains or rings
- - Carbon chains form the skeleton of most organic molecules
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Functional Groups
- - Groups of atoms that are attached to the skeleton of organic molecules
- Hydroxyl Group: Carbohydrate, Alcohols
- Carbonyl Group: Formaldehyde
- Carboxyl Group: Amino Acids, Vinegar
- Amino Group: Ammonia
- Sulfhydryl Group: Proteins, Rubber
- Phosphate Group: Phospholipids, Nucleic Acids, ATP
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Hydrolysis Reaction
- - Splitting of a compound by the addition of water, with the H+ being incorporated in one fragment and the OH- in the other
- - Bonds are broken by adding water molecules
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Dehydration Reaction
- - Chemical reaction resulting in a covalent bond with the accompanying loss of a water molecule
- - Remove a water molecule, forming a new bond
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Isomers
- Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
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Ion
- - Particle that carries a negative or positive charge
- Anion: negative
- Cation: Positive
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Atom
- Smallest particle of an element that displays the properties of the element
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Element
- Substance that cannot be broken down into substances with different properties; composed of only one type of atom
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Biology
- - Scientific study of life
- - Multidisciplinary science drawing on the insight from other sciences
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Basic units of the metric system
- Mass= Grams: g
- Lengeth= Meter: m
- Volume= Liter: l
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Metric units prefixes
- tera (T) 1 trillion 10^12
- giga (G) 1 billion 10^9
- mega (M) 1 million 10^6
- kilo (k) 1 thousand 10^3
- hecto (h) 1 hundred 10^2
- deka (da) 1 ten 10
- Base Unit (m,g,l)
- deci (d) 1 tenth 10^-1
- centi (c) 1 hundredth 10^-2
- milli (m) 1 thousandth 10^-3
- micro (µ) 1 millionth 10^-6
- nano (n) 1 billionth 10^-9
- pico (p) 1 trillionth 10^-12
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Homeostasis
- maintenance of normal internal conditions in a cell or an organism by means of self-regulating mechanisms
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Properties of Life
- - Form high degree of ordered structures
- - Regulate internal conditions
- - Harvest and use energy
- - Reproduce and evolve
- - Grow and develop
- - Respond to environmental stimuli
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Hierarchy of Life
- Organ systems
- Organ
- Tissues
- Cells
- Organelles
- Molecules
- Atom
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Natural Selection
Mechanism of evolution caused by environmental selection of organisms most fit to reproduce; results in adaptation of the enviornment
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Structure of an atom
- - Proton: positive subatomic particle, located in the nucleus
- - Neutron: neutral subatomic particle, located in the nucleus
- - Electrons: negative subatomic particle, that has no weight, orbits the nucleus of an atom in an orbital
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Isotope
- Atom of the same element having the same atomic number but a different mass number due to the number of neutron
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Molecule
- Union of 2 or more atoms of the same element; also the smallest part of a compound that retains the properties of the compound
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Chemical Bonding
- Enable atoms to give up or acquire electrons in order to complete their outer shell
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Matter
- - Anything that takes up space & has mass
- solid
- liquid
- gas
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Covalent Bond
- - Chemical bond in which atoms share one pair of electrons
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Ionic Bond
- - Chemical bond in which ions are attracted to one another by opposite charges
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Polar Bond
- - One atom is more electronegative & the atom do not share the electron equally
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Nonpolar covalent bond
- - The atoms share the electron equally
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Hydrogen Bond
- - Forms when a hydrogen atom already bonded is attracted to another electronegative atom
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Dissociation
- General process in which ionic compounds separate or split into smaller particles
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Properties of water
- - Cohesion: molecules attract other water molecules
- - Capillarity: water molecules climb
- - Adhesion: water molecules attract other chraged substances
- - High heat of vaporization
- - Solvent
- - High heat capacity: resist changes in temp
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Hydrophilic
- (water loving) Dominated by ionic or polar bonds
- can absorb water
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Hydrophobic
- (water fearing) Noniconic & have nonpolar covalent bond
- major molecules of cell membranes
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Moles
- Number of molecules in a unit
- Avogadro's number 6.02x10^23
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Buffer
- - Substance or group of substances that tend to resist pH changes in a solution
- - Important to living organism
- - Accept hydrogen ion from the solution when they are in excess and donate hydrogen ion when they have been depleted
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Base
- - Molecules tending to lower the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and raise the pH numericaly
- pH 14 -> 8
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Acid
- Molecules tending to raise they hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and to lower it's pH numerically
- pH 6 -> 1
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Prokarytoic Cell (before nucleus)
- Simplest organism
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Eukaryotic Cell
- - Characterized by compartmentalization by an endomembrane system & the presence of membrane-bound organelles
- - Type of cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus & organelles
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Fluid-Mosaic Model (Cell Theory)
- - Model of the plasma membrane based on the changing location & pattern of protein molecules in a fluid phospholipid bilayer
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Cytoplasm (intracellular fluid)
- - Contents of a cell between the nucleus & the plasma membrane that contain the organelles
- - Semi-fluid material (nucleoplasm & cytosol)
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Extracellular fluid
- - Interstitial fluid: fluid on the exterior of the cell within tissues
- - Plasma: fluid component of blood
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Solution
- - Homogeneous mixture of 2 or more components
- Solvent: dissolving medium
- Solutes: components in smaller quantities within a solution
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Diffusion
- - Movement of molecules or ions from a region of higer concentration to one of lower concntration; it requires no energy & stops when the distribution is equal
- - Movement is random
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Diffusion across a membrane
- - Random movement of the molecules will cause some to pass through the pores trying to reach equilibrium
- - Higher concentration will diffuse first
- so there is a different rate of diffusion depending concentration
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Plasma Membrane
- - Composed of a lipid bilayer w/ globular proteins embedded in the bilayer
- - Membrane surrounding the cytoplasm that consist of a phospholipid bilayer w/ embedded protein
- - Regulates the entrance & exit of molecules from the cell
- - It's a boundry & protects
- Keeps things in & out
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Plasma Membrane functions
- Transport
- Enzymatic activity
- Signal transduction
- Cell-cell recognition
- Intercellular joining
- Attachement to the cytoskeleton & extracellular maxtrix
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Membrane Transport
- - Selective permeability, it allows some substances to cross it more easily than others
- - Passive transport : simple diffusion, dialysis, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
- - Active transport: membrane pump, coupled transport
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Permeability of lipid bilayer
- Factors: lipid solubility, size, charge (electronegativity), presence of channels & transporters
- - Hydrophobic molecules are lipds soluble & can pass through the membrane rapidly
- - Polar molecules do not cross rapidly
- - Transport protein allow passage of hydrophilic substance across the membrane
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