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Exocrine Gland
Secretes products through ducts.
ex. sweat, sebaceous, mucous, salivary, digestive.
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Endocrine Gland
Secrete hormones into the extracellular spaces around secretory cells.
-
Endocrine glands secrete hormones that do what?
- 1. regulate the internal environment
- 2. Responds to stress (epinephrine)
- 3. integrate growth and development (HGH)
- 4. contribute to the reproductive process
- 5. control metabolism and energy balance.
-
Heterocrine glands
both endocrine and exocrine glands. (gonads, pancreatic)
-
Hormones are classified as:
- Amines
- Peptides
- proteins
- steroids
-
Amines
Simplest hormones, modified from amino acid
-
Protein and peptide hormones consist of?
Chains of amino acids
-
Steroid hormones are derived from?
Cholesterol which has 4 carbon rings
Ex. Sex hormones, and cortisol
-
The amount of hormone release is determines by?
The bodys need for the hormones at any given time
-
Cells that respond to the effects of hormones are called?
Target cells
-
what is found in the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus of the target cells
Specific receptors
-
Most hormones are released in _____________ bursts, with ______or______
-
Mechanism that prevents overproduction underproduction of the hormone.
Negative feedback control
-
small bean sized gland located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
Pituitary gland
-
The pituitary is connected to the ____________of the brain by by a stalk-like structure called the_________
-
The pituitary gland is divided into:
- Anterior lobe / adenohypophysis
- Posterior lobe / Neurohypophysis
-
Adenohypophysis
larger and glandular portion
-
Neurohypophysis
Smaller and neural portion
-
Anterior lobe releases ___________that regulate
hormones
-
anterior lobe hormones release how many regulating hormones? Produced by ___?
-
Blood supply to the anterior lobe
Superior hypophyseal arteries
-
anterior/ adenohypophysis produces which hormones
- Thyroid stimulating
- melanocyte stimulating
- adrenocorticotropic stimulating hormone
- Prolactin
- Human Growth Hormone
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Luteinizing hormone
-
Thyroid stimulating hormone
stimulated the thyroid glands
-
melanocyte stimulating hormone
Increase skin darkness
-
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland
-
prolactin or lactogenic hormone
helps initiate milk production in the breast.
-
HGH
stimulates body growth
-
Follicle stimulating
regulates the activities of the gonads
-
Luteinizing hormone
also regulates activities in the gonads.
-
Luteinizing and FSH are often termed?
gonadotropic hormones
-
posterior lobe / neuropophysis recieves stimulation by way of ?
Nerve tracts from the hypothalmus
-
Posterior lobe releases __ hormones. They are?
-
Antidiuretic Hormone
stimulates water reabsorbtion by the kidneys
-
Oxytocin
stimulates the contraction of the uterus
-
Where is the thyoid gland located?
just below the larynx.
-
Thyroid gland is shaped like? What is it connected by?
-
Thyroid consist of?
the follicular cells
-
thyroid follicular cells secrete?
parafollicular cells secrete?
thyroxin(T4) and Tridothronine (T3)
Calcitonin
-
Thyroid hormones regulate?
metabolism, energy balance, growth and development, and influence activity of the nervous system.
-
T3 molecule has __atoms of iodine?
T4?
-
Most of the bodys iodine is stored where?
Thyroid gland
-
Calcitonin helps maintain
- homeostasis of calcium and phosphates in blood
- deposition of calcium in bone
-
Parathyroids are where?
posterior surfaces of the lateral lobes of the thyroid
-
Parathyroid hormone or parathormone acts with calcitonin to
- regulate the homeostasis of calcium and phosphate
- cause the release of calcium from bone
-
Adrenal gland are located where?
fat pads superior to the kidneys.
-
Adrenal glands consist of?
Outer cortex and inner medulla
-
3 cortical hormones
- mineralocorticoids
- glucocoticoids
- gonadocorticoids
-
Mineralocorticoid
Aldosterone- regulates water and sodium and potassium levels in the body
-
Glucocorticoid
cortisone- promotes resistance to stress and serve as anti-inflamitories
-
Gonadocorticoids
Sex hormones produced by the adrenal cortex in both sexes
-
Medullary hormones
- Epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine
- fight-or-flight
-
Pancreas lies where?
Underneath the stomach
-
what kinds of glands is the pancreas
Heterocrine
-
Histologically the pancreas consists of?
Endocrine cells (pancreatic islets/islets of langerhans) and exocrine cells (acini)
-
# types of pancreatic cells
-
Alpha cells
Secrete glucagon which increases the blood glucose level.
-
Beta Cells
Secretes insulin which decreases the blood glucose level
-
Delta Cells
secretes growth inhibiting hormone that inhibits tissue growth decreasing the production of hgh.
-
Androgenous
male characteristics
-
Androgynous
Mixed male and female characteristics
-
Where is the pineal gland located?
What is it shaped like?
the third ventricle of the brain. It is shaped like a pine cone.
-
What does pineal gland secrete?
Melatonin during darkness.
-
What shape is the thymus?
It is bilobed and located in the superior mediastinum behind the sternum.
-
What does the thymus secrete?
Thymic humoral factor and the thymic factor which is developed by the lymphocytes.
-
Disorders like dwarfism, giantism, acromegaly are associated with what?
Anterior pituitary and is also associated with HGH.
-
What is he most common disorder of the posterior pituitary?
Diabetes insipidus which causes polyuria and severe dehydration.
-
what results in hyperglycemia because of the inability of the pancreatic beta cells to produce inulin?
Diabetes mellitus
-
What results from the under secretion of thyroxin during infancy?
Cretinism
-
What results from the under secretion of thyroxin during adulthood?
Myxedema
-
Enlarged thyroid glands
Goiters- caused by lack of iodine in the diet.
-
What is graves disease characterized by?
Exophthalmos(gas bulge), a high metabolic rate, and heat intolerance.
-
Over secretion of cortisone
Cushings syndrome
-
What is cushings system characterized by?
spindly legs, moon face, bufalo hump, pendulous abdomen, and striae
-
Cardiovascular system consists of?
-
The cardiovascular system is related to?
Lymphatic system
-
Hematology
The study of blood
-
blood characteristics
opaque, sticky, viscous
-
Blood accounts for __% of the total body weight.
What kind of tissue is it?
-
pH of blood
Sightly alkaline (7.35-7.45)
-
Functions of blood
- Oxygen transport
- carbon dioxide transport
- transport of nutrients
- transport of waste products
- transports hormones from the endocrine glands to target cells
- transports enzymes to target cells
- regulates temp & pH
- Protects against blood loss and from foreign bodys
-
Components of blood
- formed elements- 45% blood cells
- plasma- 55% fluid with clotting elements
-
plasma
- 7% protein(clotting elements)
- when clotting elements are removed, the fluid is called serum.
-
Blood cells are produced through which process
Hemopoesis
-
Three major types of blood cells
- RBC
- WBC
- Platelets(thrombocytes)
-
Where do the blood cells from?
- RBC-myeloid tissue
- WBC- myeloid tissue and lymphoid tissue
- Platelets- myeloid tissue
-
Red blood cells are formed in a process called?
Erythropoesis
-
RBCs structure
- Biconcave 8 micrometers
- Lack nuclei
- contain hemoglobin
-
Globin
4 polypeptide chains carrier CO2.
-
Heme
Contains iron, carries O2
-
RBCs live for how long
120 days
-
Average number of RBCs in adults
- 5 million per cubic MM
- Slightly more in males
-
The primordial (first) blood cells
hemocytoblasts
-
immature RBC
Reticulocyte
-
erythropoiesis
Production of RBCs
-
hemetocrit
measures the percentage of RBCs in whole blood
-
percentage of RBC in
Males?
Females?
-
Leukocytes
White blood cells
-
how long do leukocytes live for?
several hour to several days
-
-
Grandular leukocytes
- Dot in cytoplasm
- Develop in bone marrow
- has granules or strippling in the cytoplasm
- possesses lobed nuclei
-
Types of Leukocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
- Neutrophils
-
Eosinophiles
Cytoplasmic granules, stains orange, loves acid
-
Basophils
granules stain dark purple
-
Neutrophils
- Stain very light blue
- polymorphs- many forms of nuclei
-
Agrandular Leukocytes
- develop in bone marrow and lymph tissue
- Do no have granules
-
-
Functions of WBCs
- Phagocytosis
- Chemotaxis
- defensins
- antihistamines
- antibodies
-
Diapedesis
movement of WBCs through capillary wall
-
Wandering microphages
WBCs that move in the extravascular space disposing of dead or foreign matter
-
Way to get the WBC count
CBC with the differential
-
Increased neutrophils
neutrophilia- acute bacterial infections
-
Eosinophilia
- allergic reactions
- internal parasites
-
basophilia
cancer or leukemia
-
lymphocytosis
acute viral infections
-
monocytosis
chronic infections
-
Thrombocytes
- platelets
- fragments of giant cells called megakaryocytes
-
thrombocytes characteristics
- anucleated
- normal count is between 250-400 thousand cubic mm (VERY IMPORTANT TO SURGEONS)
-
Homostasis
stoppage of bleeding
-
Vascular spasm
the constriction of smoothe muscles in blood vessels
-
Platelet plug formation
Platelet adhesion- accumulation of thrombocytes in great numbers
Platelet release reaction- become sticky
Platelet aggregation- reinforced with fibrin threads
-
Coagulation process
blood clot is formed
-
Extrinsic pathway
initiated by chemicals outside the blood
-
intrinsic pathway
initiated by platelets inside the blood vessels
-
platelets and plasma are trying to produce
thrombin which forms fibrin
-
The repaired tissue dissolves the scab. (the process)
Fibrinolysis
-
In the ABO system,incompatible reactions happen when ________ occurs
Agglutination- red cells sticking to each other
-
Person with AB blood is __?
o?
- Universal recipient
- Universal donor
-
Rh pos. individuals have?
Rh antigen- about 85% of the population
-
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
fetus is Rh pos and mother is Rh neg
-
-
In order to avoid adverse transfusion reactions
crossmatching
-
lymph and plasma are different because
lymph contains less protein then plasma
Lymph possesses a variable number of WBCs
Lymph does not contain RBCs or platelets
-
Anemia
decreased RBC count
-
pernicious anememia
lack of intrinsic factor which is needed for b-12 production.
-
Hemorrhagic anemia
loss of blood
-
occult bleeding
hidden blood loss which occurs in the gut
-
hemolytic anemia
fragile RBCs that easily rupture
-
Aplastic anemia
destruction of bone marrow
-
sickle-cell anemia
abnormally shaped RBCs
-
Polycythemia
abnormal increase in RBCs
-
mononucleosis
caused by epstein barr virus. High percentage of lymphocytes (NOT MONOCYTES)
-
Leukemia
Malignant disease of the blood forming tissues
-
Hemophilia
hemophilia A- factor VIII is absent
-
Clotting in an unbroken blood vessel
Thrombosis
-
A thrombus that moves from its site of origin
Embolus
-
Thrombolytic (Clot dissolving) agents
- chemical substances injected into the body.
- Streptokinase is commonly used
-
Clot preventers
Heparin & Coumadin
They are not blood thinners
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