Physiology Lab Exam 2 (pt 2)

• The cutaneous thermoreceptors would detect increased temperature of the skin. In response, the receptors would send information to the hypothalamus stating that the person is now "warm enough"
• The individual would stop shivering and their core temperature would continue to decline making the hypothermia worse

• Increase temp change
• Increase Change in PPG amplitude

Decrease for both in cold water

• Skin (peripheral) 
• Hypothalamus (central)

Tells the body to induce a homeostatic response

Vasoconstrict if cold and vasodilate if warm

Heat exhaustion, fever, hot environment

Cold environments, hypothermia

It will convince the body that it has completely re warmed when the core temperature hasn't risen

Exhaustion: elevated temperature, flushed skin, sweat, dizziness, nausea, <104 degrees

Hypothermia: shivering, blue tones, confusion, apathy

• Plasma oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• pH levels

Ventilation is increased in order to increase the blood's oxygen saturation

• Decrease in blood pH which suggests an increased cellular metabolism
• Respiration is increased in order to provide additional oxygen to compensate

• Cells are extremely sensitive to blood pH levels so they must be kept in a narrow range
• The chemoreceptors can then react quickly to adjust ventilation as needed

Pathological increase in ventilation causes more carbon dioxide than usual to be removed from the blood resulting in an increase in pH

A pathological decrease in ventilation causes an excess of carbon dioxide to be retained resulting in a decrease in pH

• pH increases because of a metabolic abnormality
• Respiratory rate decreases (increasing blood carbon dioxide levels( in an attempt to correct the pH imbalance

• pH decreases because of a metabolic abnormality
• There is a normal carbon dioxide level with a low pH
• Respiratory rate increases in an attempt to decrease CO2

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3-

Low pH -> high resp -> low CO2

High pH -> low resp -> high CO2

Low respiratory -> high CO2 -> low pH

High resp -> low CO2 -> high pH

No; disturbance was metabolic which why the pH was low as well as the CO2

pH induced CO2 levels

Increased respiratory rate- respiratory chemoreceptors sensed low pH & responded w/increased ventilation

Uncompensated means that ventilation is fixed and the pH problem becomes worse

No because an increase in CO2 would produce a decrease in pH not a high pH

yes because increased CO2 leads to decrease in pH since CO2 is converted into carbonic acid which breaks into H+ and bicarb

Yes because removing extra CO2 from the blood increases pH

Increase in H+ = decrease in pH = increase in respiratory rate = decrease CO2

Low respiratory rate = increase CO2 = decrease pH

BP, plasma osmolarity, plasma sodium, plasma potassium, total body water, plasma ph, and others

• An enzyme produced by the kidneys which leads to the production of the hormone angiotensin II
• Secreted in response to diminished BP at the kidney or diminished osmolarity

• Leads to the production of the hormone aldosterone
• Produced when renin is present
• Constricts blood vessels, increasing resistance and BP

Increases in BP and/or blood sodium levels (increasing blood sodium increases plasma osmolarity)

• Secreted in response to angiotensin II
• Acts on kidneys where it causes the reabsorption of sodium by active transport

Causes the reabsorption of sodium and causes the excretion of potassium through the active transport pumps

• Increased: body will tend to retain sodium while losing potassium in the urine
• Decreased: body will tend to retain potassium while losing more sodium in the urine than usual

• Secreted in response to increased plasma osmolarity or decreased BP (osmolarity of has the greater effect)
• Acts on the collecting duct allows water to be reabsorbed by osmosis
• Increases thirst, influencing water intake

• Increased: body retains more water
• Decreased: body loses more water in the urine

• Function of the ratio of solute particles in a solution to the total volume of that solution
• Can be altered either by changing the number of solute particles present or the total volume present

• Try to increase the osmolarity by secreting more aldosterone and less ADH
• The increase in aldosterone increases sodium retention while the decrease in ADH leads to water loss in the urine; causing osmolarity to increase

• Renal system will adjust in order to increase blood volume
• Increase in blood volume will tend to bring the BP back up
• Increasing both ADH and aldosterone secretion will maximize water retention at the kidneys

• Increase aldosterone
• Decrease ADH
• Increase osmolarity

• Decrease aldosterone
• Increase ADH
• Decrease osmolarity

• Increase aldosterone
• Increase ADH
• Increase fluid retention (increase BP)

• Decrease aldosterone
• Decrease ADH
• Decrease fluid retention (decrease BP)

• Plasma osmolarity: increase
• Renin: decrease
• Aldosterone: decrease
• ADH: increase
• Water intake: increase
• Urine Na+: increase
• Urine K+: decrease
• Urine osmolarity: increase

• Plasma osmolarity: decrease
• Renin: increase
• Aldosterone: increase
• ADH: decrease
• Water intake: decrease
• Urine Na+: decrease
• Urine K+: increase
• Urine osmolarity: decrease

• Renin: increase
• Aldosterone: increase
• ADH: increase

Work together for max results

• Renin: decrease
• Aldosterone: decrease
• ADH: decrease

Increase plasma osmolarity

Increase plasma osmolarity

• Decrease plasma osmolarity
• Increase ADH
• Decrease aldosterone

• Increase ADH 
• Increase aldosterone

If renin increase, it releases angiotensin II which causes vasoconstriction and increase resistance in blood vessels to raise BP

• Increase ADH
• Decrease aldosterone
• Decrease renin

• Increase in ADH which will increase water retention
• Decrease in aldosterone which decreases Na+ retention which decreases the number of solutes and decreasing osmolarity

• Increase in aldosterone
• Decrease in ADH

• Decrease ADH promote H2O loss
• Increase aldosterone which promotes Na+ retention which increase H+ of solutes to solution which increases osmolarity

• An increase in aldosterone and ADH maximize H2O retention 
• Aldosterone creates a large osmotic gradient while ADH allow H2O to flow the gradient freely
• Water follows salt to increase blood volume

Increase Na+ intake decreased aldosterone secretion and aldosterone simulation increases the K+ excreted in the urine so the body retained more K+ bc the aldosterone decreased

Decrease in Na+ means increase in aldosterone secretion and increase in K+ to be excreted out in the urine; retain Na

• Macromolecules that can only be absorbed when broken down into their monomer form 
• Food digestion is a prerequisite to food absorption

• Large protein molecules produced by body cells
• Biological catalysts that increase the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming part of the product

Digestive enzymes are hydrolytic enzymes which break down organic food molecules, or substrates, by adding water to the molecular bonds, thus cleaving the bonds between subunits or monomers

• Its highly specific in its action
• Each enzyme hydrolyzes one, or at most, a small group of substrate molecule and specific environmental conditions are necessary for an enzyme to function optimally

For example: in extreme environments such as high temperature, an enzyme can unravel or denature due to the effect that temperature has on the 3-D structure of the protein

Cellulose which is a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed by the enzymes in our digestive tract because of the type of chemical bonds they contain

• During digestion, starch decreases and sugar increases
• Starch + water --amylase--> X maltose

• The chemical method of detecting the presence of digested substances
• IKI and Benedict's assay are two examples

• Detects the presence of starch
• A normally caramel-colored solution changes black-blue in the presence of starch

• Tests for the presence of reducing sugars, such as glucose or maltose, which are the digestion products of starch
• Reagent is a bright blue solution that changes to green to orange to reddish-brown with increasing amounts of maltose

Secretion of lubricating fluid containing enzymes that break down carbohydrates

Mechanical processing, moistening, mixing with salivary secretion

Transport of materials to the stomach

Secretion of bile (important for lipid digestion) storage of nutrients, many other vital functions

Storage and concentration of bile

Enzymatic digestion and absorption of water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions

Pharyngeal muscles propel materials into the esophagus

Chemical breakdown of protein via acid and enzymes; mechanical processing through muscular contractions

• Exocrine cells secrete buffers and digestive enzymes
• Endocrine cells secrete hormones

Dehydration and compaction of indigestible materials in preparation for elimination

• IKI test: + 
• Benedict's test: -

Boiling denatures the enzyme so starch is never converted to sugar

• IKI test: -
• Benedict's test: ++

Ideal conditions so there was sugar production for orange color in benedict

• IKI test: -
• Benedict's test: -

Control tube, no reaction bc there was no starch to react to

• IKI test: +
• Benedict's test: -

Control tube, no enzyme but still starch

• IKI test: -
• Benedict's test: ++

No starch but excess of maltose

• IKI test: +
• Benedict's test: +

Some sugar produced because the enzyme can function but not effectively so there is leftover starch as well

• IKI test: +
• Benedict's test: +

Some sugar produced because the enzyme can function but not effectively so there is leftover starch as well

7

The tube with only amylase and no starch bc you shouldn't see any maltose

It shows if there was any contamination that may yield a false positive

Maybe some activity because at a pH of 2 there was some sugar production

Inactivates and denatures the enzyme

• IKI: + 
• Benedict's: -

• IKI: +
• Benedict's: -

Wrong enzyme so the starch can't be digested

• IKI: -
• Benedict's: ++

Bacteria can take digest cellulose into sugar

no effect

Freezing has no effect where boiling inactivates the enzyme

No it cannot break it down into sugar

Bacteria contains the enzyme cellulase because digestion of cellulose causes the IKI test to be negative and hydrolysis to happen

Peptidase's substrate is not a starch. It breaks down peptides while starch is broken down by amylase

• Protein digesting enzyme
• Hydrolyzes proteins to small fragments

• Synthetic "protein" that is transparent and colorless when in solution
• If active, the solution will become yellow

2 which correlates with pepsin's location in the stomach

Works a little which was shown at the ph of 7 (mouth pH)

• First: fats/oils -> bile; emulsification -> breaks down into droplets
• Second: fat/oil droplets -> lipase -> monoglycerides

Some of the end products of fat digestion (fatty acids) are organic acids that decrease the pH

No bc it is already so acidic so you can't get much more acidic to see the change in pH

7

• Yes in the mouth bc the pH is more condusive 
• No in the stomach bc pH too low

Vegetable oil and fatty acids

• Salivary glands
• Mouth
• Starch
• 7

• Stomach
• Stomach
• Protein
• 2

• Pancreas
• Small intestine
• Lipids/fats
• 7

37 degrees C which is normal body temperature