Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 2 and 26

All the chemical reactions in the body

-metabolic rate

• breakdown
• downhill

• takes larger molecules
• breaks them in to smaller ones
• breaks their covalent bonds
• - when molecules break down they are getting energy
• *DOWN-HILL because don't need energy input; in living things you don't wanna put energy into breaking things down

• Creates usable energy
• Usable energy is ATP
• The enzymes recognize to make bonds with the ATP
• The bonds are broken and rebuilt for energy
• Exergonic

Release Heat

Build up

• takes small molecules
• make new covalent bonds
• large compounds are built
• UPHILL
• Needs energy to make new bonds

• Use of Carbs and Fats
• Use up ATP; endergonic
• Up-hikk because it requires energy input
• Building what cells need

biological catalyst:reduces the energy needed to drive a reaction forward

• made of protein
• they are globular; 3D
• very speicific shapes; most maintain b/c it has to collect substrate
• have an active site where the substrate binds

• the compound being altered by the enzyme
• must have a high chemical affinity for the enzyme

lock and key analogy

the product

• most enzymes are highly specific as they act on only one substrate
• enzymes are often sequential in action; they work together and rely on each other
• 30 some enzymes to break down 1 molecule

• ions that help keep active sites stable or keep enzymes structure stable
• have to have a positive charge b/c substrate are negitive; in order to maintain enzyme shape

• non- protein organic compounds that work with enzymes
• not made of amino acids
• not protein just helping

is so important that keeping the right environment for that shape is part of your homeostatic mechanisms

• *Messing with pH influences the 3D structure of the enzymes
• if the pH is low there are too many hydrogen ions and the enzyme will loose its shape
• if the pH is high there is not enough hydrogen ions and the enzyme will loose its shape

• if temp is to high it denatures the enzyme
• the cold stops kinetic energy of the substrate of going to the enzyme

because the enzymes aren't able to go back to the same shape we can bring people back from cold but its harder to bring them back from heat

catabolic

removal of electrons or removal of a hydrogen atom

• addition of electrons or addition of hydrogen
• add negitive energy

• mant enzymes use ox/ red reactions to break carbon- carbon bonds and to drive the formation of ATP
• -the enzymes never have a one step reaction
• -need co-enzymes that will hold the hydrogen for the reaction

electron carries

1

• *NAD+ is the oxidized form- know b/c it have a postive
• *NADH is the reduced- have electron in H

must be used over and over

Glucose+oxygen=CO₂+H₂O+ATP+heat

• series of oxidation and reduction
• the oxygen is reduced to water with the hydrogen from the glucose

• A catabolic reaction
• A series of oxidation/ reduction reactions
• Glucose is more reduced than the ned product of CO₂
• You oxidize glucose to carbon dioxide and you reduce oxygen to water
• the energy in ATP we use to build things up

• glycolysis
• aerobic respiration

anaerobic event- doesn't need oxygen

includes the Krebs cycle (AKA citric acid cycle) and the ETS: electron transport system

Glucose+ NAD's+ 2 ADP+ 2 P+ 2 ATP= pyruvic acid+ NADH's + 4 ATP

• 1.partial oxidation of glucose
• 2.yields an intermediate (more we are going to do) pyruvic acid that must be used or excreted as waste
• 3.it has created some reduced electron carries (NADH)
• 4.Oxygen is not used
• 5. Note:pyruvate is the same as pyruvic acid

• 1.Oxidized pyrubic acid to acetyl
• 2.Oxidation of the end carbon of pyruvic acid yields CO₂ as waste; the oxidation of CO₂ forces it to leave the rest of the compound
• 3.Aceyly is "small" so add a co-enzyme to yield Acetyl CoA

• CoA acts like a "label" so enzymes in Krebs can find acetyl
• CoA is recycled

we need NAD+ (the oxidized form) for glycolysis to yield NADH

Get reduced in the reaction

in the ETS

When glucose is oxidized

• 1. Enzyme sequence that ends where is begins
• 2. Requires a carrier molecule (oxaloacetic acid) that can accept acetyl
• 3.Remaining carbons from glucose are completely oxidized to CO₂
• 4. Reduction yield NADH's
• 5.Left side restores the carrier to orginial form
• 6.Left side has more ox/red's and yields reduced electron carries
• **DON'T say right side oxidizes and light side reduces-BOTH oxidize**
• *picture in notes

• enzyme sequence ends where it started
• CO₂, Reduced electron carriers

• 1.Series of ox/ red reactions which uses molecules with reactive cneters
• 2.Example: cytochromes with iron as active center
• 3.NADH's drop off their e's and H+ here
• 4.This frees the NAD+ to return to the toerh pathways and be recycled
• 5.As electrons are past, the protons are being pushed into the mitochondrial space from which there is only one exit
• 6.Chemiosmotic force "pumps" protons into intermembrane space
• 7.A strong electrochemical gradient is formed
• 8.Oxygen is the terminal receptor in ETS and it gets the e's from the final cytochrome
• 9.As the H+ pass through the ATP through oxidative phosphorylation
• 10.Finally have generated alot of usable energy in the form of ATP
• *picture in notes

water

glucose

glycolysis

it is not a substrate at all; it is a coenzyme

• pass electrons to each other until they finally pass it to oxygen
• its a downhill reaction

when pyruvic acid is the "end of the road" whether due to lack of oxygen or lack of further enzymes in the organisms

• 1.Glycolysis requires the oxidized form of NAD+
• 2.At the end of glycolysis; you are stuck with reduced NADH's with no where to go
• 3.Need to oxidize the carries back to the NAD+ state
• 4.Pyruvic acid is a waste; can be reduced while NADH is oxidized
• 5.In humans product would be lactic acid
• 6.Remove as quickly as possible and take to liver
• 7.Used in gluconeogenesis
• *picture in notes

break down of starch (in food) or glyogen (stored energy)

Beta oxidation

• oxidize fatty acid chains by breaking chain into acetyl's
• -can be twice the amount of ATP from fats than carbohydrates
• takes several oxidations to do this
• yeilds many NADH's

the Krebs cycle

telling you body you have diabetes; you burn fat not carbs

break down of proteins into AA's and use as fuel

Requires deamination of AA's: liver is location

you get them from diet

glycogen from glucose

Amino acids

fatty acids from acetyl that came from glucose

not effective- dont work unless you have a genetic disease

challenges the liver and kidneys