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Gene sequence can encode for?
Proteins, RNA, tRNA, rRNA
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What is the central dogma?
DNA -> (synthesis) Transcription -> mRNA -> Translation -> Protein
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Reverse transcriptase does?
Turns RNA into DNA
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Is the heritable, permanent record of genetic information.
DNA
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Is the temporary, intermediate copy of a protein-encoding region of DNA
MRNA
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Is the adaptor molecule that directly translates nuclei acid ?language? into amino acids to build polypeptide chains.
TRNA
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Triplets of nucleotides
Codons
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Is the big ribonucleoprotein machine that organizes mRNA and tRNAs to direct translation
Ribosome
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Where does insulin come from?
Pancreas
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A sequence of DNA that has information to make a. Protein,
Gene
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Sequence of activators (& repressiors) to bind, control reaction of gene.
Promoter
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Small circular DNA chromosome. Modifiable delivery chicles for genes.
Plasmids
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What was the Harvard model of making insulin in bacteria?
Copy rat DNA for insulin from mRNA fro insulin. Steps: Isolate mRNA from rat pancreas, make cDNA copies, Insert ?clone? into plasmids and screen for bacterial insulin production
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What was the west coast & city of hope genetechs methods to make bacteria produce insulin.
Design DNA sequence for insulin. Chemical synthesis of new DNA sequence for insulin. Chemically synthesize insulin, insert the insulin DNA into plasmids, and scree bacteria for insulin production
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What are the three controversaries and obsitacals for insulin production?
Be carful when mutagenic is/energizing bugs ? NIH. Be extremely carful cloning human Genes-NIH, and don?t engage in any genetic engendering at all -Cambridge, MA
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Reasons to be worried about GMO bugs.
Bugs become more pathogenic, Effect on surrounding ecosystems, excess insulin (insulin in soil, or water) death, evil applications, playing god.
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Why could a lost of function allel be dominant?
- Maybe broken protein interferes with normal protein.
- Maybe one functional copy isn?t enough, haloinsucciciency.
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A German who was recognized as a founder of modern genetics
Gregor Mendel.
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Heritable information occurs in pairs of elements.
Genes
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Phenotype
Physical appearance.
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Heterozygous
Genetic elements from maternal and paternal inheritance differ
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Genotype: Unseen genetic information
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Homozygous
?True-breeding? both genetic elements governing a trait are the same
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A trait linked to a gene allele that appears in a heterzygote
Dominant
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A trait linked to a gene allele that is masked or absent in a heterozygote
Recessive
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What is the law of independent segregation?
Alleles are neither modified nor lost; are transmitted to the next generation independently
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Law of independent assortment.
When tracking multiple pairs of genes that govern separate traits, alleles are assorted independently from one another.
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A new offspring/organism with new combinations traits not present in either parent.
Recombinant
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Heterozygote is a blend of two parental phenotypes, that alleles are still passed on independently and unchanged to the next generation.
Incomplete dominance
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Restive alleles on sex chromosomes produce their phenotypic traits more frequently in males.
Sex-linked traits
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In all organisms studied, the number of gene linkages groups matched?
The number of haploid chromosomes.
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Crossing over hypothesis
The exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes non-sister chromatic that results in recombinant chromosomes during reproduction.
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Greater physica distance between genes/loci makes more opportunities for
X-over even to occur in between.
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Lower chance of inepenent assortment =
Closer physical association between genes
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Genes in linkage groups could always be arranged in
Linear sequences
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The principle of independent assortment holds true for two given genes only if?
The genes are on different chromosomes or very far apart on the same chromosome.
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Dead material could mediate?
Inheritance and transmission of genetic material
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Acquire a new trait.
Transform
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What nucleic acids are purines?
Adenine and Guarine
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What nucleic acids are prymadines
Thymine and Cytosine
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Describe the structure of nucleotides?
5 carbon sugar paired with a nitrogenous base
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Who was it that showed DNA is helical and anti-parallel?
Rosalind Franklin
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Double helix of anti-parallel duplex of 2 long, continuous molecules.
DNA
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Each long, continuous subunit of DNA is held together by?
Covalent bonds
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The duplex of DNA is held together by?
Hydrogen bonds
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The duplex of DNA only achieves the constant 30nm diameter if the nitrogenous bases in the middle are paired?
Pyramiding -purine
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This is determined by deoxyribose sugar group, as phosphates are bound to the 5? and 3? carbons on the sugar ring.
Polarity
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Nitrogenous base is attached to the?
1? carbon of the ribose ring
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DNA polymerase is an enzyme that builds DNA chains, with what two rules?
1. Needs a template strand of DNA to build a complimentary sequence of. 2. Uses energy from breaking phosphate bonds to add changed nuceotide subunits.
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Can add the nucleotide if there is an open end
DNA polymerase
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This kind of replication is half old and new partner strands.
Semi-conservative
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There models of DNA replication purposed
Conservative (one old and one new), Semi-conservative (half and half), dispersive (shuffled)
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Frequently simplified to mean. The. Full progress of the central dogma ultimately resulting in protein synthesis.
Gene expression.
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Is the intermediary nucleic acid for moving genetic instructions out of DNA in the nucleus and into the cytosol.
RNA
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Differences: Longs, unbranded chain of nucleotides. Linked by phosphodiester bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone. Synthesized in 5?-3? direction. Capable of forming anti parallel double helices, almost always found bound to a complimentary parter molecule.
DNA
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Differences: Long, unbranched chain of nucleotides. Linked by phosphodiester bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone. Synthesized in 5?-3? direction. Capable of forming anti parallel double helices, but rarely has complementary strand available with which to pair. Long molecules often bend and base pair with themselves. Most double helices are destroyed.
RNA
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How is RNA made from DNA?
RAN is copied irectly from the DNA template by rna polymerase. RNA bases pair with DNA bases. mRNA contains the instruction for protein synthesis. 3 bases of codons tell what amino group to come in Inside the ribosome a tRNA with the anti-codon trans ports the amino group.
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What are the three main RNA molecules?
MRNA, tRNA and rRNA
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What is the start codon?
AUG
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What is the stop codons?
UAA, UGA, and UAG
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Pushing, pulling and sharing electrons between atoms.
Molecular bonds
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Electrons are shared between 2 atoms, electrons surround both nuclei. Strongest and most durable.
Covalent
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These are hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds , vander waals interactions and hydrophobic forces.
Non-covalent bonds.
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A foundation that explains most bonding behaviors for organic molecules
Electronegativity
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What are the two rules for electronegativity?
Increase with more protons and decreased as outshell moves further away.
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How to determine electronegativity
O-H = 3.44-2.20=1.24
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How polar in x = 0-0.4
Non-Polar
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How polar in x= 0.4-1.7
Polar (dipole)
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How polar in x= 1.7 and up
Ionic
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What are the rules of hydrogen bonds?
Always requir a donor and acceptor, geometry matters (directly next to each other), plastics (form and break a lot)
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Substances that dissolve easily in water are?
Hydrophilic
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Molecules that get repelled by water?
Hydrophobic
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The opposite of covalent bonds. The electrons are not paired. Have a charged attraction. Strength varies depending on context.
Ionic bonds
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Squirrelly, contradictory, weak forces acting between 2 close atoms
Van der waals
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Very stron bonds that wonts break without enzymatic intervention. Hold atoms closer together than non.
Covalent bonds
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In the DNA what kind of bonds are seen?
Covalent within each strand, hydrogen between base pairs, ionic repulsion between the sugar-phosphates backbones, and van der waals interactions between the bases.
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How many hydrogen. Bonds does. G-C have?
3
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How many hydrogen bonds does A-T have?
2
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What. Are the three. Forms that dna can form/
B-form, A-form, and Z-form
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This is the conformation of most DNA in cells. Right handed, dimensions for helical turns and major groves are averages that can vary locally.
B-form
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This?s form is less common. Right handed, some dns binding proteins push dna into this conformations. Bear some similarity to RNA bobble helices.
A-form
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This form is mostly a curiosity for biophysicists. Left handed and funky.
Z-form
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What does a DNA duplex have major and minor groves?
Relates to geometry of bond angles and how bases stick out from the backbone
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What are the major and minor grooves goo for?
DNA binding proteins typically prefer to bind to the major grooves
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DNA -binding proteins primarily recognize a specific sequence of double-stranded DNA through.
Interaction with the exposed chemical groups in the major groove of the dna
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Supercoiling?
Makes it more or less stable, more or less organized, big or small, and can alter the major and minor grooves
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Supercoiling can be done by?
- Twisting an writhing negative. And positive
- Negative supercooling
- Makes it easier to dissociate strand of DNA. Replication forks
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Positive supercoiling
Inhibits the dissociation of strains in a DNA duplex
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Two kinds of writhe supercoiling
Interwound and toroidal
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What helps relive the pressures from supercoiling?
Topoisomerase
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How does topoisomerase work?
Nicks a section and hold onto the pieces and bonds back.
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Topoisomerase induced single-strand breaks, manage rotation of uncut strand
Type 1
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Topoisomerase induce double-stranded breaks, allows uncut duplex to pass through gap before re-sealing gap
Type 2
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RNA folding creates?
Stems, loops, bulges, and hairpins
-
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Chains of amino acids covalently bonded by peptide bonds
Proteins
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Manufacture specific polypeptides chains by translating mRNA codons
Ribosomes
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Why did nature decide to use protein instead of RNA?
Greater diversity of building blocks and availability of hydrophobic side chains
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Two amino groups?
Dipeptide
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Three amino groups?
Tripeptide
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Many amino groups
Polypeptide
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This is a common modification that will change protein charge, shape, and function.
- Phosphorylation
- Linear amino acid sequence
- 1*
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Alpha helices and Beta sheets
2*
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3-D folding of polypeptidechains, including orientation and packing do 2* structures.
3*
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Multiple polypeptidesubunits assembled together.
4*
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Homotetramer
4 identical subunits
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Heterodimer
2 different subunits
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Main molecular forces that influence protein structure.
I oval Kent bonds, hydrogen bonds, electrostatic/ionic attractions, hydrophobic force, and van der waals interactions
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Where does free rotation occur in an amino acid?
Around the alpha carbon
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Where is there no free rotation in a amino acid?
The peptide bonds
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Aminos will bond every?
4th amino group
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How are beta sheets formed?
Antiparallel strands and parallel strands
-
Some facts about b-sheets
R-chains stick out on alternating faces. No prolines
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Why does proline disrupt the 2* structures
Lacks H-bond donor and can only rotate on one side.
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Covalent bonds that bond between the cysteine side chains.
Disulfide bonds
-
Are covalent bonds that help stabilize the 3* and 4* protein structures
Disulfide bonds
-
-
-
-
Stabilizing helix?
Interacts with the backbone on DNA. Basic and + charged
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Recognition helix?
Interactions with major juntions. Capable of H bonds
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