Nutrition Module 4

life

containing nitrogen

• organic compounds that are needed in small amounts in the diet
• a vital key to our health- without them our bodies would not be capable of sustaining functions necessary for daily activities
• the majority of vitamins cannot be synthesized by humans and must come from the diet, with a few exceptions (A, D, K, Niacin and biotin)

• help regulate and support a variety of chemical reactions and processes related to digestion, absorption, metabolism and body regulations
• unlike carbs, protein and fat they yeild no energy, but they are very important in growth and maintenance

• enough of the compound has to be consumed in the diet to maintain our health, due to our bodies inability to manufacture the compound
• deficiency symptoms that result in declining health can occur in the absence of the compound, and health is often restored when the deficiency is corrected

• a
• d
• k
• niacin
• biotin

• Fat Soluble Vitamins: A,D,E,K
• Water Soluble Vitamins: B complex, C

• a,d,e,k
• dependent on fat in our diet for absorption
• once theyre absorbed, theyre stored in the liver and fatty tissue
• certain diseases, weight loss meds, and laxatives can interfere with fat and therefore fat soluble vitamin absorption leading to a deficiency
• absorbed by the lymph system and stored, so they are not easily excreted
• consumption over time can lead to toxicity over time since they are stored

• b complex and c vitamins
• absorbed int he blood
• limited storage, must be consumed daily
• susceptable to loss in cooking because they are water soluble
• also can be lost in fruits and veggies so eat them as soon after harvest as possible
• have a minimal chance of toxicity unless consumed in really large quantities which usually only happens with supplements
• excessive cooking, improper handling, heat, light, and air exposure can destroy all vitamins, but especially water soluble ones

• store canned goods in a cool place
• use fresh fruits and vegggies within a few days of harvest
• refrigerate foods in moisture proof containers 
• blanch veggies prior to freezing them
• some foods have to be enriched or fortified to ensure Americans get adequate intake of vitamins

• enrichment/enriched: the process of taking nutrients that were lost in the milling or processing of food and adding them back into the final product (all grain products are enriched due to the loss that occurs in the milling process)
• fortification/fortified: the process of supplementing a product with additional vitamins that normally wouldnt be found in that product (ie oranges dont have calcium, vitamin D or vitamin E, but orange juice is fortified with them)

• retinoids: preformed vitamin A that comes from animal sources
• carotenoids: pigments found in plant sources that can be converted to vitamin A. These are called provitamin a

• most widely recognized function is impact on vision
• retinoids help the eye adjust from bright to dim light- without adequate intake the eye loses the ability to adjust to light- this condition is called night blindeness and is an early indicator of vitA deficiency
• if the deficiency progresses, the eye loses the ability to make mucous and keep the eye moist. Bacteria can then invade causing XEROPHTHALMIA and the end result is blindness
• also, consumption of fruits/veggies high in carotenoids may help prevent macular degeneration- an eye disorder that progresses as we age.

• Many carotenoids are antioxidants: stop the damage caused by reactive substances seeking an electron that would alter normal rxns in body
• important for skin health: VitA stimulates fibroblasts which develop tissue that keeps skin firm and healthy in deep laters and encourages healthy skin cell production
• important for epithelial cell health: for the epi cells that line the gi tract, as well as the inside and outside of our bodies that act as barriers to protect from infection by bacteria and provide immunity
• needed for growth, development and reproduction: vitA binds to DNA to produce a variety of proteins- this is a major requirement for gene expression. Lack of vitamin A would lead to stunted growth in children and an inability to reproduce
• Disease prevention: cancer and cardiovascular disease can be prevented with adequate VitaminA intake, especially carotenoids

• liver
• fish
• fish oils
• fortified milk
• yogurt
• eggs

• yellow, orange, and red vegetables
• dark green leafy veggies (spinich/kale)

many scientists agree that eating sources of vitamin A in food provides more benefit than from supplements

• upper level: 3mg of Retinoids per day for adults
• Levels above this could lead to toxicity: increased hip fracture, liver toxicity, fetal malformations in preg women
• high intake of carotenoids does not cause toxic effects, but one side effect is yellowing of palms of hands/soles of feet- this resolves when levels decline

• a vitamin and a hormone
• can be synthesized by the body

• skin cells contain a cholesterol like substance that is converted to 7-dehydrocholesterol by the sun
• the liver then converts this to 25-hydroxyvitaminD and the kidney finishes converting the inactive form to active Vitamin D

10 min of sun 2-3 times per week provides 80-100% of our vitamin D needs, however people in northern climates often have low sun exposure in winter or the rays are too weak

• fatty fish
• fortified cereal
• eggs
• butter
• fortified milk
• yogurt

• regulation of calcium and bone metabolism: primary function. in conjuction with parathyroid hormone, vitamin D regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and deposition of calcium in the bones, and bone health
• also important for: immune system, skin development, muscle health, and blood pressure control

• results in bone problems in both
• children: poor mineralization of bone due to inadequate calcium deposits results in rickets- bowed legs are a characteristic of this disease
• adults: inadequate calcium absorption and deposition in the bones leads to osteomalacia which means soft bones. the result- weak bones that break easily and is comparable to rickets in kids
• as we age, our bones continue to lose calcium and production of vitamin D decreases, osteoporosis occurs as bone mass decreases and bones thin and become pourous
• low levels have also been linked to increased risk of infections, cancers, autoimmune disease and cardiovascular disease

• desired blood levels are 30ng/mL 
• 20ng/mL is considered deficient
• adults should take 1000IUs of vitamin d daily
• toxicity from VitD is usually related to oversupplementation
• symptoms of vit D toxicity: calcium in urine, loss of appetite, confusion, calcium deposits in kidney and other organs

• The most widely used supplement 
• has been marketed as a love potion, an antiaging potion and for heart health

• Major function: acts as an antioxidant protecting cell membranes from free radicals
• the free radicals can alter a cell's DNA and increase the risk for cancer and damage to cell membranes

• the chemical name for vitE
• alpha-tocopherol: the main form of vitE in the body
• gamma-tocopherol: the main form of vitE in plants

• Rare, but can lead to cell breakdown and hemolysis (breakdown of RBCs)
• pre-term infants, smokers and those who sufer from fat malabsorption are at risk for deficiency

• oils
• cereals
• eggs
• margerine
• whole grains
• nuts

• upper level is 1g per day of the supplemental form, above this toxicity could occur
• toxic levels interfere with VitK's role in clotting and can lead to damage

Comes from our diets and is synthesized by bacteria in our GI tract

• oils (soybean and canola)
• plants (green beans, green leafy veg)
• fish
• meats (liver)

• Primary function: blood clotting (coagulation)
• necessary for bone formation and binds calcium to the muscle and kidneys

• intestinal bacteria is required to produce vitK
• the intestinal tract of infants doesnt produce enough bacteria for adequate VitK, so infants are routinely injected with VitK shortly after birth

• 80ug/day for adults
• unlike the other fat soluble vitamins, vitK disappears from the body within 24 hours so toxicity is rare
• someone on coumadin, a drug that deters blood clotting is often recommended to limit their vitamin K to keep the clotting down

• rare
• infants, older adults with poor intake, and ppl on abx, for extended periods of time would be susceptible to deficiency

• daily 
• they dissolve in water, so very little is stored and excess is secreted in the urine and stool
• must eat daily to prevent deficiency
• also make sure to monitor food prep, as water soluble vitamins can be degraded in food processing and prep- steam, microwave and stirfry to preserve the food

• 8 of them
• Thiamin (B1)
• Riboflavin (B2)
• Niacin (B3)
• Panthotenic Acid
• Pyridoxine (B6)
• Folate
• Vitamin B12

Most of the 8 are found in similar foods

• act as coenzymes in the metabolism of carbs, protein, and fat
• coenzymes: work with enzymes and help them to perform their job
• if b vitamins are lacking, many enzymes cant perform and deficiency symptoms begin
• typicall north american diets are adequate in b vitamins and many grains are fortified with them, so deficiencies are less common here

• following digestion, 50-90% of b vitamins in food are absorbed at the small intestine- this means they have high bioavailability
• combination of high bioavailability and high abundance in diet makes little risk for deficiency in healthy ppl

the amount of a vitamin that can be absorbed and used by the body

• alcoholics with poor diet and decreased absorption due to the alcohol
• elderly with very poor diet

• aka vitamin b1
• a coenzyme for the release of energy from carbs
• works with enzymes in glucose metabolism

• glucose is the major source of energy for the brain and nervous system
• if a deficiency, the glucose cant be metabolized and symptoms appear

• called baribari (I cant I cant)
• symptoms: weakness, loss of appetite, irritability, poor arm and leg coordination, enlarged heart, severe edema

• wet baribari: affects cardiovascular system- increased heart rate, shortness of breath, leg swelling
• dry baribari: affects nervous system- mental confusion, loss of muscle tingling, difficulty walking, speech problems

• legumes
• pork
• milk
• orange juice
• organ meats
• whole enriched grains

rare, but in countries where polished rice is a major staple, baribari is more common

• aka vitamin B-2
• the conenzymes of riboflavin are used during energy metabolism that requires oxygen and are necessary for certain vitamin and mineral metabolism
• they are also known to act as antioxidants (stopping free radicals from harming cells)

• enriched grains
• meats
• eggs
• milk products

it is very sensitive to light, so milk containers are almost always opaque to prevent degredation of this vitamin

• known as ariboflavinosis
• rare
• normally, it would occur in conjunction with other vitamin deficiencies
• symptoms: glossitis (inflammation of the tongue), cheilosis (cracks around the mouth), sun sensitivity, confusion

no known toxicity except when taken in major mega doses

• aka vitamin b3
• functions as either nicotinic acid or nicotinamide
• almost all cells use  the coenzyme for release of energy from carb, protein and fat

yes

• our bodies can also synthesize b3 from the amino acid tryptophan 
• this process synthesizes apprx 50% of our needs

• meat
• poultry
• enriched breakfast cereals
• fish
• nuts
• peanuts

• known as pellagra (which means rough skin)
• rare in developed countries, with the exception of alcoholics and those with metabolism disorders

• dementia
• dermatitis
• diarrhea
• death

• a hallmark of excess niacin intake is flushin- relating to increased blood flow to the skin
• also headaches is a sign of overabundance
• in some cases, large doses of niacin can be useful in treatment of high blood cholesterol levels but must be used under the supervision of a medical professional

• a component of coenzyme A (coA)
• found in a wide variety of foods- deficiency and toxicity both rare
• important in fatty acid production and the release of energy from the energy yeilding nutrients

• aids in the production of glucose and fatty acids, DNA synthesis, and amino acid metabolism
• For the majority of the population, toxicity and deficiency are both rare

• cauliflower
• liver
• peanuts
• cheese
• egg yolks

• egg yolks are a good source
• egg whites contain a protein called avidin that prevents absorption of biotin

• cooking breaks down avidin and allows absorption to occur
• a large intake of raw egg whites could lead to biotin deficiency

the general name for the B-6 coenzyme, which exists in 3 chemical forms

• needed for carb, protein and fat metabolism and plays a key role in protein and amino acid metabolism: b6 removes the nitrogen group from certain amino acids allowing hte cells to make nonessential amino acids
• important for the synthesis of WBCs to support immune function, synthesis of hemoglobin and for neurotransmitter synthesis: neurotransmitters allow nerve cells to communcate with eachother, lack of b6 interferes with this and can lead to convulsions

• both plant and animal sources
• has a higher bioavailability in animal sources

• neurotransmitters allow nerve cells to communicate with eachother, lack of b6 interferes with this and can lead to convulsions
• deficiency can also cause decreased hemoglobin production (the O2 carrying part of RBCs)- this results in microcytic hypochromic anemia

small, oxygen deficient RBCs

• medically, b6 supplements have been used during the first trimester of pregnancy to treat nausea, but should only be taken as directed by a physician
• mega doses of b6 from supplements can cause hand and foot numbness and irreversable nerve damage
• weight lifters have been known to suffer from toxic effects related to b6 overdose in hopes of increasing muscle mass

• can be found in different forms in food
• function: to act as a coenzyme in DNA synthesis and cell division, as well as metabolizing amino acids and homocysteine. Also needed for RBC synthesis

• can lead to a form of anemia called megaloblastic anemia aka macrocytic anemia
• in pregnant women studies have linked inadequate levels of folate to result in neural tube deffects. during the first 6 weeks of preg, the spinal cord and the nerves at the lower end of the brain are developing. lack of folate can lead to defects including anencephaly (lack of brain) or spina bifida 
• to decrease their risk, women of child bearing age should take 400mcg/day of folate

• depression
• mental confusion
• poor growth
• diarrhea
• altered nerve function

• the spinal cord does not close completely and bulges through the back
• can result in paralysis, incontinence, learning disabilities and other health problems

• characterized by abnormally large RBCs
• when deficient, RBCs can grow, but the nrmal process of cell division cant occur due to lack of DNA 
• these cells, called megaloblasts, never mature and their ability to carry o2 through the blood stream declines resulting in anemia

• in 1993, fortification of grain products was made mandatory to reduce the risk of spinal defects. it is added to ready to eat breakfast cereals and grains 
• naturally found as folate in green leafy veggies, orange juice, and legumes

Folic Acid, a synthetic form of folate is more readily absorbed than folate

• upper limit is 1mg/day
• levels over this can cause toxicity but only from the synthetic form
• the major concern is that overconsumption of folate can mask a vitamin b12 deficiency

• preg moms
• older adults with poor intake
• alcoholics

• Major Function: converts folate coenzymes to the active form needed for DNA synthesis
• important in homocysteine metabolism and in maintaining the meylin sheaths that insulate neurons

• unlike other vitamins where inadequate intake=deficiency, poor absorption rather than intake causes b12 deficiency
• if someone has a b12 deficiency, it is most likely because they have decreased intrinsic factor

• begins in the stomach with stomach acids
• in the small intestine, the b12 binds to intrinsic factor for absorption
• as we age, we become less efficient at absorbing this vitamin, and the elderly can be at risk for deficiency
• Some individuals have a defect in the absorption of b12. a monthly injection or nasal spray of b12 corrects this and improves absorption

a protein-like compound produced in the stomach to increase b12 absorption

if it occurs, 2 types of anemia can result: megaloblastic/macrocytic anemia or pernicious anemia

without adequate b12, the conversion of folate coenzymes to the active form for DNA synthesis cannot occur causing large RBCs that cant mature

• pernicious means leading to death and is associated with nerve degeneration that can lead to paralysis and death
• the RBCs resemble those seen in a folate deficiency, but are caused by poor absorption of b12
• symptoms- weakness, back pain, tingling in fingers and toes
• nerve damage can occur slowly and the deficiency may take several years to diagnose
• the damage that results is often permanent

• animal products (meat, organ meats, eggs, milk)
• fortified breakfast cereals

• elderly: have decreased production of stomach acid and reduced production of intrinsic factor therefore decreased absorption
• vegans and infants of vegan breastfeeding moms: vegans need to take supplements and eat foods supplemented with b12

• aka ascorbic acid
• absorbed at the small intestine and is found in all living tissue

• Collagen synthesis
• Antioxidant activity
• Iron absorption
• Immunity

• collagen is a connective tissue protein found in bones, teeth, tendons and blood vessels. it is necessary for wound healing
• a deficiency of vitC can decrease collagen synthesis and result in scurvey
• scurvey symptoms: bleeding gums, weakness, pinpoint hemorrhages, poor wound healing
• before the 1800s scurvey was a serious problem for sailors on long voyages, James Lind discovered eating citrus fruits prevented it

VitC acts as a scavenger for free radicals and studies suggest it may be effective in preventing certain cancers

iron absorption is improved when a food source high in iron is eaten with a good source of vitamin C

despite popular belief, large quantities does not prevent colds, but it may reduce the symptoms

• citrus fruits
• potatoes
• ready to eat cereal
• strawberries
• broccoli
• fortified drinks

• rare in north america in  ppl who are healthy and consume a variety of fruits and veggies
• high intake of vitamin C can decrease absorption and cause diarrhea

• the most important nutrient
• we can survive without food for ~8 weeks, humans can only survive a few days without water
• important for many chemical and metabolic reactions to occur, and it functions as a solvent
• important in controlling blood volume
• important for body temp regulation, removal of waste products, as a lubricant, and for making salivary bile and amniotic fluid

• makes up 50%-70% of the human body
• lean tissue has higher water content (73%)
• fat tissue contains 20% water
• a person with a high% of lean tissue/muscle mass will have a high % of total body water
• the total fluid volume in the body is ~10gallons

• inside cell membranes as part of the intracellular fluid
• part of the blood in the extracellular fluid

• minerals that have an electrical charge
• aka electrolytes
• the electrolytes are: sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and phosphate
• the concentration of these ions inside and outside the cells control the water balance. Water moves from low to high concentrations by osmosis

• if blood volume decreases, the water  will move from inside cells to the blood stream to raise it
• if blood volume high, water will move to the cells
• intracellular water volume relies on potassium and phosphate concentrations
• extracellular water volume depends on sodium and chloride concentrations

• perspiration: the body's mechanism to prevent overheating
• if we cant sweat, our body temp rises
• when we sweat, fluid is released through skin pores and evaporates
• this process requires energy which in turn expels heat from the body and prevents internal body temp from rising

• very good solvent
• water allows most substances to be dissolved in the body and be transported to cells or removed from the body as waste

• our kidneys usually excrete ~4 cups of urine per day, this amount is influenced by protein and sodium intake
• when protein is consumed, nitrogen is metabolized from the amino acids and excreted into the urine as urea
• as sodium and potassium intake increase so does urine output
• when fluids, protein, and sodium are restricted, urine output declines. if the amount excreted falls below 2cups/day, urine becomes very concentrated and there is an increased risk of kidney stones

• check it to determine if you are drinking enough fluids
• it should be clear or pale yellow
• dark yellow indicates inadequate fluid intake

• to maintain body fluids in sufficient amounts we want to maintain water balance
• the amount lost through perspiration, respiration, urine and feces should be balanced with an adequate intake

can come from food, water, and other beverages

• women: 11 cups/day, 9 cups from fluid alone (rest can be from food)
• men: 15cups/day, 11 cups from fluid alone

• one mechanism that people rely on to ensure adequate fluid intake
• not always reliable, as we can become dehydrated before realizing we're thirsty, this is especially true for athletes, someone ill with a fever, infants, children, and the elderly

• Antidiuretic Hormone: released by the pituitary gland to signal the kidney to conserve water
• Aldosterone: as fluid levels fall in the blood stream, this is released from the adrenal glands to signal the kidneys to retain sodium, which will cause them to retain water as well.

• endurance declines
• fatigue sets in 
• muscle cramping starts
• end result could be coma or death

• although water is the best option, most beverages can be used to replenish water stores
• aside from water, recommended beverages include non-caloric beverages, lowfat/skim milk, coffee and tea

alcohol inhibits antidiuretic hormone and can lead to dehydration

• while inadequate fluid consumption is fairly common, excess can cause effects as well
• an excessively large water intake will dilute the blood electrolytes and overwhelm the kidneys' ability to secrete fluids
• in extreme cases, water toxicity has lead to death

• one of the safest in the world
• the EPA sets standards for our water sources and under the safe water drinking act all public water supplies are monitored for contaminants
• if contaiminants are found the local water department is responsible to notify the public about the concern and advise them on the steps to take to ensure safe drinking water
• many peoplle assume bottled water is a safer choice, but in many cases you are paying for wate that is much the same as what comes out of your tap
• the FDA regulates bottled water, andt eh standards are very similar to those for tap water
• drinking tap water, with a filter if you dont like the taste, can save money, but bottled water is beneficial for convenience and portability

• inorganic elements involved in body structure and regulation
• can be found in plants or animals
• 2 groups

• major minerals: required in amounts greater than 100mg/day in the diet
• trace minerals: required in amounts less than 100mg/day in the diet

• the degree to which a nutrient is absorbed and available to be used by the body
• affected by many factors

• mineral source
• fiber-mineral interactions
• mineral-mineral interactions
• vitamin-mineral interactions

• plant vs animal sources: minerals from animal sources are better absorbed than those from plants
• the mineral content from plant foods can vary depending on the mineral content in the soil that they grew in
• oxalic acid is found in dark green leafy vegetables and can decrease absorption of certain minterals
• plant sources such as grains may lose minerals during the refining process

• high fiver diets can lower the absorption of iron, zinc and other minerals
• phytic acid (phytate) in grain fiber binds minerals and interferes with absorption

• minerals such as iron, magnesium, copper, and calcium are smaller in size and have the same charge. Because of this an excess in one mineral will result in decreased absorption of another mineral as they compete for absorption
• ie- calcium and iron supplements should never be taken together

• unlike other interactions, the vitamin-mineral interaction is necessary for nutrient absorption and metabolism
• ie: iron absorption increases when consumed with a good source of vitaminC
• ie: calcium absorption is dependent on the availability of active vitamin D
• mineral supplements should be taken with caution
• intakes greater than 100% of the daily value should only be taken under physician supervision as they can be toxic

• sodium
• potassium
• chloride
• calcium
• phosphorus
• magnesium

• a major mineral whose most recognized form is that of NaCl (table salt)
• important for fluid balance and nerve-impulse transmission

the body absorbs almost all the sodium ingested

• rare, because almost all eaten is absorbed
• in north america, the main concern is overconsumption

• processed foods, convenience foods, and restaurant foods all are high in sodium and provide ~80% of our sodium intake
• adding salt in cooking adds another 10% as does naturally occuring salt in food

• current guidelines recommend limiting sodium intake to 2300mg (1tsp) daily
• Americans consume 2300-4700mg sodium/day
• the 2010 dietary guidelines have suggested restricting it further to 1500mg (3/4 tsp)daily
• this is especially important for older adults and those with hypertension or a family history of it

• Dietary
• Approach to
• Stop
• Hypertension
• following this diet is a method that naturally decreases sodium consumption and lowers high blood pressure
• this diet includes high consumption of fruits, veggies, whole grain and lowfat diary

• a major mineral
• responsible for fluid control operating inside cells, nerve-impulse transmission and muscle contractions
• adequate potassium intake lowers high blood pressure

unprocessed food such as fruits, veggies, whole grains and lowfat dairy

• in north america, current intake is about 2000-3,000 mg/day
• the current recommendation is 3500mg/day

a deficiency from poor diet or use of diuretics can result in muscle cramps, confusion or cardiac arrhythmia

• a major mineral
• important for extracellular fluid control, in immune function, and as a component of HCl in the stomach
• like sodium, it contributes to high blood pressure and is often OVER consumed

found in some fruits and veggies, but largest source is table salt

• a major mineral
• necessary for teeth and bone structure, bone health, blood clotting, nerve-impulse transmission and muscle contraction
• the majority of the bodys calcium is in the bones and teeth

absorbed in the upper small intestine and is dependent on the acidic environment of the GI tract and vitamin D for absorption

• blood levels of parathyroid hormone (increases calcium when blood levels run low)
• presence of glucose and lactose in the diet
• infancy
• pregnancy

• large amounts of phytic acid in grains
• excess amounts of phosphorus in diet
• Vitamin D deficiency
• diarrhea
• old age

a normal bloodcalcium level can be maintained even without adequate intake, however, calcium will be pulled from the bones for this if intake is low and will eventually lead to decreased bone mass and osteoporosis

if calcium levels fall too low, the muscles cannot relax after contracting and involuntary twitching occurs (this is called tetany)

• calcitriol
• parathyroid hormone
• calcitonin

• dairy products are the most well known source
• dark green leafy veggies
• tofu
• bones of salmon and sardines
• fortified foods

• 1000-1200mg/day
• if you cant meet your needs through diet, suppements can be used
• 500mg of Calcium carbonate or calcium citrate 2x daily will help supplement your intake

• a major mineral
• 85% of the body's phosphorus is located in the bone
• important for bone structure like calcium
• a component of ATP, DNA, RNA and phospholipids

• found in numerous food sources
• meat
• cheese
• milk
• grains
• these provide the majority of the diets phosphorus

phosphorus is also used as a food additive in many baked goods, processed foods, and soft drinks

rare due to many food sources and high bioavailability

• 1000mg/day
• most of us eat 1000-1600mg/day

• major mineral
• located throughout the body, though over 60% of it may be found in the bone
• Functions as a key component in the production of ATP, DNA and RNA
• necessary for hundreds of enzyme reactions

• deficiency can cause irregular heart beat, weakness, muscle pain and seizures
• toxicity can be seen in individuals who overuse antacids, supplements and laxitives

• plant products are rich in it
• animal products like milk and meat provide some magnesium as well

• vital to our health, but their importance has only been established over the past 40 years
• aka microminerals. they are needed in miniscule amounts to protect against deficiency and disease

• iron and iodide are 2 of the most recognized
• zinc
• selenium
• copper
• fluoride
• chromium
• manganese
• molybdenum

• a trace mineral
• an extremely important mineral, but continues to be deficient in individuals around the world

• absorption is key to preventing deficiencies and toxicity
• Iron can be stored as part of the hemoglobin molecule of RBCs, in the bone marrow and in other cells
• when dietary levels decline, the stored iron can be released and used by the body
• absorption dependent on the type of iron, the body's need for iron and several other factors
• having a good source of vitamin C with non heme iron improves its absorption
• combining a source of heme iron with non heme iron greatly ehnacnes the absorption of the hon heme iron

• Heme Iron: Iron found in animal flesh in the form of hemaglobin or myoglobin (found in the muscle cells). this form is easily absorbed
• Non-Heme Iron: elemental iron added to grain products, in vegetables, milk, eggs, and other plant products. not easily absorbed by the body

• a person who is iron deficient will habe increased absorption compared to a person with adequate iron
• the body naturally absorbs more iron during growth and pregnancy

eating a high fiber diet can decrease iron absorption

zinc supplements can interfere with absorption and should be taken between meals to counteract this interaction

• RBCs transport oxygen from the lungs to cells and co2 from cells to lungs
• when dietary intake of iron decreases, the body converts stored iron for use
• as stores decline, the capability to manufacture RBCs declines and an iron deficiency known as anemia develops

• pale skin, poor temp regulation, fatigue, loss of appetite
• when anemia is suspected, Dr. draws blood and measures hemoglobin levels and RBC % known as a hematocrit test
• once anemia is diagnosed, the cause will be determined and diet changes and iron supplements can be used to counter the deficiency

• infants
• pregnant women (pregnancy causes increased iron need)
• vegetarians (many need to supplement diets due to lack of heme iron)
• preschoolers
• teens rapidly growing
• menstration (iron lost in blood)

• bleeding ulcers
• colon cancers
• hemmorhoids

all cause blood loss and therefore depleted iron

• most women of child bearing age dont eat enough iron
• a variety of meats
• fortified cereals and grains

• a genetic condition that leads to increased iron absorption
• iron will build up to dangerous amounds int he heart, muscle and pancreas, leading to organ damage
• fairly rare, buta  blood test done in your 20s can determine your risk
• treatment- frequent blood donation to thin the RBCs and avoiding iron rich foods

• rare, but can occur with suppplement use
• only use supplements if advised by a Dr.

• a trace mineral
• 90% of the body's zinc is found in the muscle and bones

• The majority of zinc in the diet comes from animal sources such as beef, milk, poultry
• whole grains, peanuts, legumes and fortified breakfast cereals are also good sources

• like iron, the source of the zinc can influence absorption
• animal sources are absorbed easily
• plant fiber, calcium, copper and iron supplements can decrease the body's ability to absorb zince

• important for: DNA synthesis, wound healing, bone maturation, sexual maturation, organ maturation, growth and prevention of cell oxidation
• also acts as a cofactor for enzymes

• symptoms: acne like rash, diarrhea, hair loss, hypogeusia (reduced taste) and hyposmia (reduced smell)
• symptoms in children and adolescents: impaired sexual development, delayed growth, learning disabilities
• was first diagnosed in Middle Eastern Countries that rely on cereal grains and plants as their primary calorie source
• in the early 1970s a deficiency was found in hospitalized patients who were being fed only intravenously

its rare in north america in healthy people, but alcoholics, vegans, proor children and elderly are at risk

a simple blood test can measure ones' zinc and supplementation will correct the deficiency

• a trace mineral
• important as an antioxidant and contributes to thyroid hormone metabolism
• there is ongoing research to address its effects in cancer prevention

• fish
• meat
• eggs
• organ meats
• grain grown in soil containing selenium

• rare
• symptoms: muscle pain, muscle wasting, a specific form of heart disease
• choosing a wide variety of foods prevents deficiency

• a trace mineral
• required to promote growth and development, to regulate metabolism, and for thyroid hormone synthesis

• an enlargement of the thyroid gland. over time as the thyroid swells, it can exert pressure on the trachea making it hard to breathe
• iodide can prevent goiter formation, but has no effect once the goiter is formed
• surgery may be necessary to remove it

• during WWI, a link between low iodide and goiter was found
• during the war it was noticed that certain regions had more goiter, soil samples showed little iodide in the soil in these areas
• the result was a manditory fortification program in which iodide was added to salt. beceause of this, now deficiency in north america is rare. 
• however, other countries in Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa dont have mandatory  fortification and goiter still occurs

• in preg, lack of iodide early in preg can have negative consequences for the developing fetus
• stunted growth and poor mental development are often the outcome
• these are symptoms of a condition known as congential hypothyroidism

• salt
• saltwater fish
• seafood
• dairy
• grain products

• a trace mineral
• important in the metabolism of iron, as a cofactor for antioxidants, connective tissue proteins, blood clotting, and immune function

• absorbed in the stomach and small intestine 
• food sources are absorbed better than supplements and the majority of the population consumes enough
• consumption of excess zinc will interfere with copper absorption which can lead to deficiency

• liver
• seafood
• nuts
• legumes
• dried fruits
• cocoa
• whole grains

• people on zinc supplements
• infants on a milk based diet (rather than formula or breast milk)
• premature infants
• someone who has had intestinal surgery

• low WBC count
• poor growth
• bone loss
• anemia

• trace mineral
• inhibits bacterial activity in the mouth and prevents tooth decay
• strengthens the structure of bone and teeth and is important in the synthesis of tooth enamel
• present in water and most toothpastes

• in 1940s, experiments examined the relation between fluoride levels in the water supply and the development of dental caries (cavities)
• after this, water supplies started to be supplemented with fluoride
• for thos who rely on well water as their source, fluoride tablets and treatments are available

• excess amounts can cause motting (white or yellow spots on the teeth)
• this occurs during tooth development and for that reason kids shouldnt swallow toothpaste

• a trace mineral
• enhances the transport of glucose across cells by aiding insulin functioning
• this mineral may also be involved in cholesterol synthesis and a deficiency may lead to elevated cholesterol and triglyceride levels (research on this ongoing)
• studies are examining the relationship between low chromium intake and development of type II diabetes

• plant sources of chromium are dependent on soil content
• other sources: egg yolks, nuts, organ and other meats

supplements not advised as toxic levels can cause liver damage and lung cancer

• trace minerals
• both act as cofactors for enzymes, boron, nickel, arsenic, and silicon
• typical diets provide adequate amounts of both and reasearch into their importance continues

• required on a daily basis to ensure proper digestion, absorption and metabolism to support immune function and bone health
• sodium restriction and calcium consumption are essential in the diet to prevent disease such as hypertension and osteoporosis