Khan academy 100 #2

2 reasons why you’d conform:
1) ________ influence: look to group for guidance when you don’t know what to do, and ask what to do. when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don’t.

2) ________ influence: even if you know what’s right, do what group does to avoid social rejection. If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we’re complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently.

_______ refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. A phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members.

________ – occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group “unity” individuals suppress own opinions.

________ – breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community.

________ – when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone famous. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual.


________ – idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. Stronger than other types of conformity.

________ (how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter).

what is this?


studies were done to study willingness of participants, average Americans to obey authority figures that conflicted with their personality and morals.
Learner was hooked to electrodes, and told learner would be shocked when gave wrong answer. Teacher was taken to different room without visual contact, sat in front of shock box. First 15V, and switches increased until 450V.

_________ – focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group’s actions.

The _________ seeks to explain how responding to peer pressure may lead to altered attitudes. Social comparison first compels conformity. Subsequent cognitive dissonance leads to adoption of group attitudes to resolve inner conflict.

______ is a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self-awareness in groups. those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person’s identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group of individuals decreases their inhibition/guilt. Or the internet.

According to ________ 
If you practice inside and out, presence of others will lead you to perform well. If you haven’t practiced well, presence of others will make you perform more poorly. Presence of others improves performance on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks.

________ is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren’t evaluated.

________ – rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms.

________ – the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who’s dropped item, or saying thank you. Consequences are not severe/consistent. No actual punishment.

_________ – norms based on some moral value/belief. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. truthfulness. Don’t have serious consequences.

________ – completely wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community. Ex. incest and cannibalism.

The _________ states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws – learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm.
Relationships a person forms are very important – if strong relationship to someone deviant, more likely to learn deviance than someone not.

_______ – a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what’s acceptable in that society. Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant and wrong by those who think so.

what type of deviance? 


 no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same way without feeling wrong.

what type of deviance ?


 more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior.

________ – if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success.

________ is large # of people who experience delusions at same time, reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news.

________ learning – when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus.

During ______, the learning phase during which a conditioned response is established, the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are paired.

_______ is the process of making a learned behavior disappear, the experimenter presents a CS alone, without the presence of the US. Once this process is repeated continuously, eventually, the CS will stop eliciting a CR.

________ is a phenomenon of learning and memory which was first seen in classical (Pavlovian) conditioning and refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

_______ is a reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired.

________ is said to occur if, after a particular CS has come to elicit a CR, another similar stimulus will elicit the same CR. Usually the more similar are the CS and the test stimulus the stronger is the CR to the test stimulus.

One observes _______ when one stimulus (CS1) elicits one CR and another stimulus (CS2) elicits either another CR or no CR at all. This can be brought about by, for example, pairing CS1 with an effective US and presenting CS2 with no US.

_______ refers to the observation that a familiar stimulus takes longer to acquire meaning (as a signal or conditioned stimulus) than a new stimulus. This process inhibits the formation of memory by preventing learning of the observed stimuli.

In classical conditioning, _______ is a form of learning in which a stimulus is first made meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus.

schedule reinforcement:

Rewarded every 5 weeks = ________

Rewarded after hitting 5 buttons = _____

Rewarded sometimes on Thursdays and sometimes on Fridays = ________

Rewarded after hitting 5 buttons the first time, 2 buttons the second time, 9 buttons the third time = _________

behaviors: taxis vs kinesis

______ learning – solve a problem using past skills, the “aha” moment is insight learning

_______ learning- learned behaviour is not expressed until required

_________ is the interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors (motivation), and environment.

Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior – ________.

chose a chocolate out of 6 you feel more satisfied with your choice than chocolate out of 30.


One result is information overload, and can lead people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made.

________ – idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in the future.
Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control.
Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened, but also depleted.
Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas.

How to improve self-control
1) Change environment – ex. moving snacks to more difficult to reach shelf.
2) Operant conditioning – reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment.
3) Classical conditioning – ex. eat healthy chocolate every time you crave chocolate.
4) Deprivation? – Removing something completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion.

______ self is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant throughout life.

______ self comes once baby realizes they’re separate – becoming aware that even though we’re separate, we also exist in the world with others. And each of those entities have properties. Ex. age and gender are first babies learn, then skills and size. Then compare ourselves with others – traits, comparisons, careers.

Carl Rogers (Humanistic Theory), believed self-concept had 3 different components.
______: what we believe we are

______: how much value we place on ourselves. is the respect and regard one has for oneself

______: what we aspire to be
When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is ________.

Freud: OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES

Fixation was due to concept of libido – a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind.


______ stage – age 0-1 yrs., libido is centered around baby’s mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely dependent on caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking, eating, drinking or biting fingers.

_____ stage – age 1-2, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for competent adults. If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.

_____ stage – age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex also develops. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. If fixation occurs, cause sexual dysfunction. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage.

______ period – no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Fixation doesn’t develop into adult fixation.


_____ stage – back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation – person is mentally healthy. An individual fixated with this phase would likely have sexual dysfunctions that would not be related to cleanliness.

which kholberg stage?

reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment.

which kholberg stage?


 recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints.

which kholberg stage?



 Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity.

which kholberg stage?


 maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws.

what kholberg stage?


 Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes.

what kholberg stage?


 – people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi.

what erikson stage?

65+ years, slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death.

what erikson stage?

age 40-65, so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture. . Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stuck and unproductive.

Stage 1 - 1 yrs., crisis is trust vs. mistrust. If an infant’s physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is hope, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust.
Stage 2 – 2 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will (independence). If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame.
Stage 3 – 3-5 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt – as if they’re annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy.
Stage 4 – age 6-12. Where teachers take an important role in a child’s life, and child works towards competence. Crisis is industry vs. inferiority. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty.
Stage 5 – age 12-18, adolescence. Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society – identity vs. role confusion. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.
Stage 6 – intimacy vs. isolation. Try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness.

______ thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity

George Mead 3 stages:

⦁ 1. ______ stage – imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words).

⦁ 2. ______ stage – more aware of social relationships, reflected in children’s tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view.

⦁ 3. _____ stage – Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of “generalized other” (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Also realize people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others perceive them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don’t care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).

George Mead:

_____ how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it, the social self. society’s view. the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment.

_______ the response of the individual to the attitudes of others. individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. It is spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

Charles Cooley used the term “______” to describe the idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others.

________ is belief bad things happen to others, but not to us.

⦁ Covariation model – 3 cues of Kelley’s covariation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people)
⦁ Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as opposed to situation.
⦁ When consistency is high = internal factors
⦁ Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational.
⦁ Third factor in covariation model – “group lateness” – if you arrive late at meeting but if 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause.

The _______ is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.

________ concerns judgements you make of yourself. You're likely to attribute successes to internal factors (e.g. I'm smart/I studied so hard), and failures to external factors (e.g. The exam was just really difficult).

⦁ In _______ cultures (Western), success is attributed to internal and failure to external
⦁ In ______ cultures (Eastern), success is attributed to external and failure to external (favour situational attributions when situational factors are emphasized)

⦁ _________ – self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
⦁ Ex. Blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, blue students perform worse.

⦁ exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual. It threatens performance.

⦁ __________ – stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes.
⦁ “City dwellers are rude” (cognition, stereotyping) -> I don’t like them (affective component, prejudice) -> I will avoid them (behavioural component, discrimination)
⦁ They think I’m rude (cognition) -> They may not like me (affective)-> They avoid me (behavioural) -> City dwellers are rude
⦁ Continuous circle that feedbacks on itself.

⦁ There are types of personality more subject to prejudice – the ______ personality.
⦁ They’re obedient to superiors, but don’t have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves – oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints.
⦁ They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they’re always focused on others.
⦁ Personality type is hard to change.

In general:

___________  frustration occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining their goals; a rise in frustration then leads to a greater probability of aggression. 


In terms of prejudice: 

Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone’s frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression – and rechannel it somewhere else. Often towards minorities.
⦁ Display aggression towards other people – scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

In relation to prejudice:

⦁ ________ –upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to.
⦁ Leads to collective unrest, upsurge in prejudice and discrimination.

In general:

________ is the discontent felt by those who are deprived of something they believe they are entitled to, and that they see those around them in possession of. This discontent can, in turn, result in social deviance or in the joining of related social movements.

First impressions count: 

Latest impressions count:

The _______ describes the tendency of an observer to form a generally favorable, unfavorable, or average impression of a specific person, and to allow that general impression to have an exaggerated effect on their judgments of that person along other trait dimensions.


is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype – believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.

Judging someone else’s culture from the position of your own culture –__________
Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others
Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice

you can judge and understand their culture from within their culture – _____________

__________ – we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group – we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to the in group’s success.

_____________ = repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything – music, numbers, objects, etc.

A ________ is when we assume other shave the same beliefs we do.

_________ is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

________ – done to try to understand why some have stranger anxiety and some don’t.

when people are in new situations they rely on ________, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act.

According to ______ theory, altruism, although costly, benefits the altruist by allowing them to establish a “reputation”; one that allows him her or her to say, “look how great I am. I’ve contributed to people who are less fortunate!”

______ statuses – statuses you can’t change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family

______ status – status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete

________ – issue between two different statuses, unlike role strain which is tensions of one status pulling you in different directions. Ex. someone who’s a parent, friend, husband, and worker.

what is this?


Front stage – when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn’t like baseball. Manipulating how he’s seen to make friends.

Back stage – more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself.

________ Organizations – members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities.

________ Organizations – members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD. Positive sense of unity and purpose.

______ Organization – members don’t have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military.

________ - process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.


________ – even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they’re governed by select few. Why? Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up. Also have skills that make them valuable.

________ – fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control – have dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, ex. movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same brands and movies.

_______ – dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran.

________ tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish

______ are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there’s a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long.

_________ is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines.

__________ – reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

_______ – classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community.


________ – motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands.

_________ occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues, and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed. Ex. discovery of HIV.

________ – expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don’t get better or return, you’re viewed as deviant.

_______ – process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person’s self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness and STDs. How people experience disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care.

_________ are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can’t be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate (one person committing suicide has no effect of suicide on society)

_______ argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions – it’s something made/put together, not inherent. . Things are social products made of the values of the society that created it.
A _________ is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money.

_________ proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks in atoms, not the atoms themselves. ________ are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value.

__________ states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist.

______– private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

_________ Theory - people not only motivated by money, but do what’s best to get more good
Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally sound/reasonable. – a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action.
People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals.
How do we calculate value of these actions? Social resources being exchanged – time, information, prestige, etc.
3 main assumptions: completeness (every action can be ranked), transitivity (since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C), and independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option, won’t change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order).

______ – application of rational choice theory to social interactions.
Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals.
Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc.


behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments.

__________ – Puts a lot of focus on individual and how they behave – based on meanings we give to things, ex. Tree = shade. People are created by their society, and act based on past experiences, and meanings they’ve given things. Not everyone gives same meaning to same things. We interact with the world to give it meaning.

________ – what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society. Agreement that something has meaning and value that it doesn’t have intrinsically, ex. Money. Everything only has value because everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around us.