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what is the pathway of digestion of carbohydrates
- polysaccharides broken down to amylase to form disaccharides
- disaccharides broken down by maltase to form monosaccharides
- absorbed in the gut and transported to the liver
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what is gluconeogenesis
the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources such as amino acids, glycerol, or lactate
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what is glycogenesis
conversion of glucose to glycogen
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what is glyconolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
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what us glycolysis
conversion of glucose or other hexoses into lactate or pyruvate
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describe the process of the two ways to generate ATP
- substrate level phosphorylation: removal of phosphate from substrate and adding ADP. occurs during glycolysis and citric acid cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation: ATP is generated by oxidation reactions in Electron transport chain. energy released during each step of ETC is used to make ATP. occurs in two steps Electron transport and chemiosmosis
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what are the products of glycolysis
- 2 pyruvate
- 2 H2O
- net 2 ATP
- 2 NADH
- 2 H+
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describe the process of chemiosmosis
ATP synthase uses energy stored in H+ ion gradient to make ATP and drive cellular work
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what is the total energy production of oxidative phosphorylation
32-34 ATP
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what is the clinical significance of glucose for the nervous tissue
- nervous tissues cannot store carbohydrates, therefore requires a constant supply of glucose to the tissue.
- concentration of glucose must be within a narrow range
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what are the hormones that control glucose levels
- insulin: only hormone to decrs glucose lvl. From pancreas
- glucaon: incrs glu lvl. Pancreas
- epinephrine and glucocorticoids: incrs glu lvl. adrenal gland
- growth hormone: incrs glu. anterior pituitary
- thyroxine: incrs glu lvl. thyroid gland
- somatostatin: incrs glu lvl. pancreas
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Type 1 diabetes
- ketosis
- requires life long insulin injection
- younger
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Type 2 diabetes
- accounts for 90% of diabetes mellitus cases.
- rare ketosis
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criteria for Diabetes mellitus
- symptoms
- random glucose level >200 mg/dL
- fasting plasma glucose >126 mg/dL
- oral glucose tolerance test post 2 hr >200mg/dL
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what are the causes and how does the body react to hypoglycemia
- cause: over administration of insulin, severe hepatic dysfunction
- response: body secretes glucagon and epineprine
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test to monitor diabetic patients
- glycosylated Hg
- hexokinase method
- glucose oxidase
- ketones
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Describe the glycosylated Hgb test
- provides average of blood sugar over 3 months
- structural difference: uses affinity chromatography, boranato resin, immunoassay
- charge difference: electrophoresis, cation exchange
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describe the hexokinase method
- testing for glucose concentration in plasma
- uses G6PD (glu-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) enyme
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describe the glucose oxidase method
- measures glucose by reacting test test fluid with glucose oxidase, producing gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
- peroxidase method produces a color
- oxidase enzyme produces gluconate and H2O2
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describe the ketones method
- instant result
- preferred test method for Type 1
- testing for acetoacetic acid: with sodium nitroprusside and OH to produce a purple color
- testing for acetone: with sodium nitroprusside and OH- to produce glycerin
- testing for B-hydroyxlbutyrate: where B-hydroyxlbutyrate produces a color
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what are the factors that determine HgA1c
- average glucose
- red blood cell life span
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what are the three ketone bodies?
- acetone
- acetooacetic acid
- b-hydroxybutyric acid
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