PSYC3026PT.2

• IT WAS ORIGINALLY A PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH.
• THIS GAVE RISE TO AN EXISTENTIAL AND HUMANISTIC PSYC.
• IT'S CONCERNED WITH OUR UNDERSTANDING AND EXPERIENCE OF REALITY. 
• (e.g. the content and the immediacy of our experience.). (e.g. the consciousness, interior, experimental and the existence).
• HOW WE CONSTRUCT OUR REALITY IS MORE IMPORTANT THAT THE REALITY.

• YOUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD. THIS IS DIFFERENT FROM EVERYONE ELSE’S.
• IT FORMS THE BASIS OF HOW YOU LIVE YOUR LIFE
• (e.g. goals, obstacles and opportunities).
• E.G. A RELATIONSHIP COULD MAKE YOU FEEL LIKE YOU’RE FINDING LOVE OR ON A PATH TO REJECTION AND DESPAIR.

WHERE YOU TRY TO OBSERVE YOUR OWN PERCEPTIONS AND THOUGHT PROCESSES.

• It was a reaction to European rationalism, science and the industrial revolution.
• WE EXISTS AT A PARTICULAR MOMENT IN TIME.
• IT HAPPENS AT ONE SMALL MOMENT AND THEN ANOTHER.
• It has an emphasis on how we cope with existential questions and why we choose to live without their being a clear-cut definition of existence.

• He survived an concentration camp.
• HE ARGUED THAT MEANING IS A HUMAN NEED THAT NEEDS FULFILLMENT.
• (eg. to survive and live well we need to know that our life has meaning). when it's blocked we have an existential crisis and noogenic neurosis takes over.
• NOOGENIC NEUROSIS HAS A SOCIAL AND GENETIC ORIGIN. (e.g. material needs might be met but not our meaning).

• UMWELT = THE SENSATIONS YOU FEEL BY BEING AN ORGANISM (e.g. pleasure, pain, heat and the cold etc.)
• MITWELT = WHAT WE THINK AND FEEL AS SOCIAL BEINGS.
• Thoughts about other people and the thoughts that are directed at us (eg thinking about someone that you love or hate).
• EIGNEWELT = IT'S THE EXPERIENCE ITSELF.
• E.G. INTROCEPTION AND WATCH YOUR OWN MIND.

• EXISTENTIALISM IS THE SAME AS HUMANISM. They're human problems.
• PERSONALITY IS DETERMINED BY ALL THE FREE CHOICES WE'VE MADE IN LIFE.

• 1. WE ARE NOT PASSIVE AND DOMINATED BY THE UNC.
• 2. WE ARE GOOD AND BENEVOLENT.
• 3. WE HAVE A DRIVE TOWARDS GROWTH AND SELF-REALIZATION.
• 4. THE CONSCIOUSNESS IS MORE IMPORTANT (not the unc. and overt behaviour)

• HE WAS UNINTERESTED IN NEGATIVE PERSONALITY (eg. he was an early positive psychologist).
• HE STUDIED SELF-ACTUALIZED PEOPLE. (e.g. people who were fulfilled & happy).

• LOOKED AT THE SELF AND SELF-PERCEPTION.
• BELIEVED THAT WE HAD A BASIC HUMAN DRIVE FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION.
• (e.g. we want to improve our life and be more fulfilled).
• There's a problem because anxiety and depression are the opposite.

• BELONGS TO PHENOMENOLOGICAL AND HUMANISM BUT THERE'S AN EMPHASIS ON EMPERICISM (+positive aspects).
• What causes us to flourish?
• THERE'S 2 DOMINANT RESEARCH AREAS= 1. character strengths and virtues and 2. happiness.
• IT IS CONCERNED WITH OUR SUBJECTIVE VIEW OF HAPPINESS (E.G. S-DATA).

• COURAGE (e.g. the will to accomplish in the face of adversity).
• JUSTICE (e.g. fairness, leadership and teamwork).
• HUMANITY (e.g. kindness).
• TEMPERANCE (e.g. forgiveness and self-control).
• WISDOM
• TRANSCENDENCE (They give meaning to life e.g.  gratitude, hope & spirituality).

• WE HAVE A SET-POINT THAT'S CAUSED BY GENETICS.
• CIRCUMSTANCES (e.g. marriage, wealth and membership etc.) ARE IMPORTANT.
• INTENTIONAL ACTIVITY (e.g. effort and counting blessings) ARE IMPORTANT.

• THE TIME, PLACE AND CIRCUMSTANCES INTO WHICH YOU WERE BORN.
• E.G. THINGS WOULD BE DIFFERENT IF YOU WERE “THROWN” INTO SLAVERY.

• The unpleasant feeling you get when you think about our existence.
• THIS CAUSES ANXIETY (e.g. Why am I here and what should I be doing?) IT HAS THREE DIFFERENT SENSATIONS = ANGUISH, FORLORNNESS AND DESPAIR.

• IT’S A WAY TO COPE WITH ANGST.
• “HEAD IN THE SAND”. TRY TO AVOID WORRYING ABOUT WHAT IT MEANS BY E.G. GETTING A GOOD JOB AND ADVANCING YOUR SOCIAL STATUS.

• IT’S AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO BAD FAITH.
• YOU MUST TRY TO COME TO TERMS WITH THE FACTS.
• =E.G. YOU ARE MORTAL, YOUR LIFE IS SHORT, AND YOU'RE IN CHARGE OF YOUR OWN DESTINY.

IT’S AN EASTERN ALTERNATIVE. COMES FROM BUDDHISM (e.g. the independent self is just an illusion in your mind). IT’S JUST A COMPOSITE OF OTHER THINGS E.G. PHYSIOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL SETTING.

• E.G. TO LIVE WITHOUT FEAR AND HAVE AN AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE
• ITS POSSIBLE IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD FROM THE IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN YOUR LIFE (MORE SO IN CHILDHOOD).
• THIS BELIEF WAS MAINLY ROGER.
• MASLOW BELIEVED THAT ANYONE COULD BECOME A FULLY FUNCTIONING.
• This is the goal of psychotherapy. The therapist must bond with the client and give them unconditional positive regard.

• How does thinking make people's construals of the world intopersonal constructs? HE CALLED THIS THE PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY.
• He viewed constructs as bipolar dimensions
• (e.g. they ranged between one concept and the opposite (e.g. good to bad).  
• HE USED THE REP-TEST.
• Believed that these constructs came from past experiences.
• To understand someone's constructs we must view the world through their eyes.

• choose 3 people who have been important in your life.
• Then describe how 2 are similar and different from the 3rd.
• Tests how readily different constructs are brought to mind (e.g. if you keep saying that two are strong and one is weak then this is one of your important constructs).

• THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF GROUPS (e.g. CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, HABITS AND VALUES).
• IT SHAPES OUR PHENOMENAL FIELD AND WAY OF VIEWING THE WORLD.
• ALMOST ENTIRELY LEARNT NOT INNATE.
• How you view your experiences is effected by culture. (e.g. a south american tribe member looking at a tree vs. a car).

• ENCULURATION (e.g. the child picks up on the culture that they are born into). 
• ACCULTURATION = WHEN SOMEONE MOVES TO A NEW COUNTY AND GRADUALLY PICKS UP ON THEIR NEW CULTURE.

• OBJECTIVE CULTURE (e.g. house, food and tools).
• SUBJECTIVE CULTURE (e.g. norms, values, beliefs and attitudes etc.).

• ETICS = THE UNIVERSAL NAME FOR AN IDEA
• EMICS = THE COMPONENTS
• each culture has a basic etic of duty (e.g. a person's responsibility.) but they have different emic's.
• SOME ARGUE THAT WE SHOULD EXAMINE IT FROM AN EMIC APPROACH (understand them from within) AND A ETIC APPROACH (compare characteristics).

• EASY = CAN PURSUE LOTS OF GOALS AND THEY ARE EASY TO OBTAIN.
• TOUGH = SOME GOALS ARE MORE “VALUABLE” AND THERE ARE NOT MANY WAYS TO ACHIEVE THEM.

• CHILDREN'S STORIES. 
• ACHIEVEMENT (E.G. “THE LITTLE ENGINE THAT COULD”).
• AFFILIATION (E.G. LOVE ETC.).
• STORIES THAT HAVE A HIGH SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT WILL HAVE ^INDUSTRIAL GROWTH.

• TIGHTNESS = THEY TOLERATE LITTLE DEVIATION FROM THE NORM.
• LOOSENESS = CAN TOLERATE MORE. 
• people who live in ethnically similar and densely populated cities are tighter. They are stricter.
• (e.g. USA = a loose culture).

THE RIGHTS OF THE GROUP IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE INDIVIDUAL.

THE INDIVIDUAL IS THE MOST IMPORTANT.

• personality doesn't mean much in a collectivist society (e.g. < trait words).
• I = show that they are different, they experience more self-focused emotions e.g. anger, thinks that they can control their behaviour and acts consistent.
• C == more sociable and intimate, more other-focused emotions (sympathy), their behaviour changes with the situation.
• POSITIVE SELF-REGARD MEANS MORE TO "I'S" THAN "C'S". (Japanese don't need to think well of themselves. Have the group).

• VERTICAL (e.g. are different from each other).
• HORIZONTAL (e.g. everyone is equal). IT ALSO EFFECTS THE AUTHORITY THAT IS ENFORCES.

• EMPHASIS ON EMPHASIZED AREA.
• DOESN'T HAVE A SCIENTIFIC METHOD E.G. HOW DO WE FALSIFY EXPERIENCE?
• ISN'T ENOUGH TO ADDRESS THE COMPLEXITY OF THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE.
• MORE WESTERN.
• HAS AN INDIVIDUALISTIC AND US BIAS.

• USED "FREE-ASSOCIATION" (e.g. THE PATIENT TALKED ABOUT WHATEVER CAME TO MIND.)
• this let fears + thoughts out into the open e.g. could think about them more rationally. Found that talking about their problems was sometimes enough to cure them.

• MOST THEORIES ARE BASED OFF FREUD (either directly or indirectly).
• He also emphasized the ideas that were not widely discussed in other approaches.
• e.g. sex, aggression, childhood and the unconscious etc. 
• HE HAS A BIG IMPACT ON THE MIND AND IT'S FUNCTIONING
• HAS HELPED WITH PSYCHOTHERAPY AND POPULAR CULTURE (e.g. the 20thC and western).
• HE ASKED AMBITIOUS QUESTIONS (e.g. childhood experience).

• 1. COPERNICUS (the earth and humans are not the centre of the universe).
• 2. DARWIN (e.g. we are animals).
• 3. FREUD (e.g. we are controlled/ruled by the unconscious and irrational forces).

• WE ARE DOMINATED BY TWO BIOLOGICAL INSTINCTS (e.g. sex and violence).
• Everything we do has an underlying cause (e.g. psychic determinism).
• Human nature is largely unknown because it can be unconscious and irrational. It can become known and controlled via the ego with hard work.
• WE ARE SHAPED BY THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN OUR BIOLOGICAL INSTINCTS AND FAMILY (IN EARLY CHILDHOOD).
• OUR MIND IS IN CONFLICT + WE CANNOT BE FULLY HAPPY.
• THE UNCONSCIOUS; A PERSONALITY STRUCTURE; DEFENSE MECHANISMS; THE EFFECT THAT CHILDHOOD HAS AND; NARCISSM.

• EVERYTHING HAS A CAUSE (that may or may not be able to be identified).
• EVERYTHING HAPPENS IN A PERSON'S MIND AND THEREFORE WHAT THEY THINK AND DO HAS A CAUSE.
• NOTHING IS ACCIDENTAL. CONTRADICTIONS BETWEEN THE MIND + BEHAVIOUR CAN BE FIXED.
• THE PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH DIGS DEEP TO FIND YOUR REASONS.

• THE MIND IS MADE UP OF 3 DIFFERENT PARTS THAT FUNCTION INDEPENDENTLY AND CAN THEREFORE CONFLICT WITH EACH OTHER. 
• 1. ID E.G. IRRATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL (e.g. biological).
• 2. EGO E.G. RATIONAL AND;
• 3. SUPEREGO (moral + social. We all process different thoughts and motivations).

• CLAIMED IT WAS REAL BECAUSE OF;
• eg. neuroticism, irrational feelings and actions, slips of the tongue, psychotherapy and free associations and dreams.
• DOMINATED BY INSTINCTS. These are innate, caused from within, un-observable; and have their own aims/sources/pressures.
• THEY WANT GRATIFICATION (e.g. hunger = eat).

• CONFLICT CAN CAUSE MENTAL ILLNESS, ANXIETY AND UNHAPPINESS.
• THEY'RE ALWAYS IN CONFLICT WITH EACH OTHER.
• The ID wants ice-cream but your superego doesn't because you haven't studied at all this week.
• Defaults to the ego e.g. get ice-cream after reading a textbook chapter.
• Finds a middle-ground between 1. the motivation and; 2. morality and practicality. The compromise tells us what to think and do.

THE ENERGY THAT MAKES THE BRAIN WORK. CAN BE CALLED "PSYCHIC ENERGY" OR "LIBIDO". ONLY A CERTAIN AMOUNT IS AVAILABLE AT EACH GIVEN MINUTE. e.g. energy that is spent suppressing uncomfortable thoughts is preventing other processes e.g. having creative ideas.

• MOTIVES.
• LIFE = LIBIDO (e.g. sexual drives). Used for self and species preservation.
• DEATH = THANATOS. There is a whole heap of opposites e.g. life and death + sad and happy etc. Destroys the self and others.

• 1. A PHYSICAL FOCUS (e.g. where the energy is concentrated and the gratification happens);
• 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEME AND;
• 3. "AN ADULT CHARACTER TYPE" THAT IS FIXATED.
• When the person cannot fix problems that happened at that "stage" then they will carry some sort of psychological scar-tissue.

• NEWBORN BABIES ARE HELPLESS.
• FROM NEWBORN-18MONTHS THEY EXPLORE THE WORLD WITH THEIR MOUTH (via sucking). THIS IS A MEANINGFUL SOURCE OF PLEASURE. (e.g. it is chance to interact with their environment).
• THE THEME IS DEPENDENCY (e.g. he can't do anything).
• THE CHARACTER IS EITHER;
• INDEPENDENT (e.g. achievements mean nothing if you got help) or; DEPENDENT (e.g. wanting something means that it should appear e.g. job).

• E.G. needs not being met = not very trusting and won't deal well with dependent relationships;
• E.G. when they're met too quickly = won't be very patient.

• THE THEME IS SELF-CONTROL AND OBEDIENCE.
• WHEN THINGS GO WRONG? = 1. HAVING UNREASONABLE EXPECTATIONS PLACED ON THEM MIGHT BE TRAUMATIC AND; 2. NEVER GETTING THE CHILD TO CONTROL THEIR URGES. CHILDREN WITH AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS FARED BETTER IN LIFE.
• THEIR CHARACTER IS EITHER 1. ORGANIZED AND; 2. DISORGANIZED.

THE REALIZATION THAT BOYS AND GIRLS ARE DIFFERENT. THEME = GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUALITY AND E.G. FEAR, LOVE AND JEALOUSY. CHARACTER = HAS A RIGID MORAL CODE OR IS PROMISCUOUS.

DON'T NEED TO PASS THROUGH BUT OBTAIN. THEME = PLEASURE AND REPRODUCTION. THEREFORE MATURITY. THE CHARACTER IS WELL-ADJUSTED AND IS WELL-BALANCED.

ORAL (ID) > ANAL (ENERGY USED TO MAKE THE EGO) > PHALLIC (MAKES GOALS AND VALUES= THE SUPEREGO).

SECOND-PROCESS THINKING E.G. "THINK". THE EGO E.G. RATIONAL AND PRACTICAL. PRIMARY-PROCESS THINKING E.G. ID. DOESN'T UNDERSTAND THE WORD "NO".

• 1. CONSCIOUS MIND (e.g. the smallest and topmost);
• 2. PRE-CONSCIOUS (the thoughts that can be brought into your mind Te.g. where is your car parked);
• 3. UNCONSCIOUS E.G. ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO. IS BURIED DEEP AND CAN ONLY BE BROUGHT TO THE SURFACE BY DIGGING.

• A "FREUDIAN SLIP"
• A LEAK FROM THE ID WHICH CAUSES AN ACCIDENT. FATIGUE, INATTENTION AND EXCITEMENT MAKE SLIPS MORE LIKELY BUT DO NOT CAUSE THEM.
• e.g. darkness helps a robbery but do not cause them.

• VERY INTERESTED IN THEMSELVES..
• FREUD SAID THERE WAS A STRONG CORRELATION WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA. (E.G. grandiosity and lack of interest in the outside world).
• BABIES HAVE "COMPLETE NARCISSISM" AND IT DECREASES WITH AGE.
• HAVE MORE SELF-LOVE THAN OTHER/OBJECT-LOVE.
• HAVE TO DIVIDE THE LIBIDO (sacrifice less for other people). Also when we are in love we have the highest amount of object-libido.

• 1. TOO COMPLEX (e.g. too many ideas)
• 2. USES A CASE-STUDY METHOD; Did not care much for empirical evidence.
• 3. HAS VAGUE DEFINITIONS. WAS VERY BROAD AND AMBITIOUS. HE TRIED TOO HARD TO EXPLAIN TO MANY THINGS (with a small no. of concepts).
• 4. CAN'T BE TESTED (and aren't falsifiable)
• SOME WERE TESTABLE THOUGH. (e.g. the unconscious (E.G. THE IAT AND PRIMING), denial (DM'S), how childhood effects our adult personalities, narcissism and conflict. NOT AS WILD THOUGH AND;
• 5. SEXISM. + a lot based on jewish and european perspectives. Middle-class. 20th

• 1. THEY THINK THAT SEX IS LESS IMPORTANT;
• 2. CARE MORE ABOUT CONSCIOUS THOUGHT THAN UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHT. eg the ego is more like mainstream psychology and;
• 3. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE MORE IMPORTANT THAN DRIVES.

• HE BELIEVED THAT "SOCIAL INTEREST" E.G. BEING ABLE TO RELATE POSITIVELY AND PRODUCTIVELY WITH OTHER PEOPLE WAS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS SEX.
• "ORGAN INFERIORITY" e.g. people try to overcompensate
• e.g. a man who was physically sick as a child will strive for health as an adult. This overcompensation is called "masculine protest". Try to prove their dominance to "compensate" for their inferiority.

• WE ARE BORN WITH HUMAN MEMORIES AND IDEAS THAT SIT IN OUR UNC.
• CALLED ARCHETYPES (e.g. the basic images that are at the core of what we think about the world).
• ALSO HAVE A "PERSONA" (the "mask" we wear in public to hide our private selves. There's a problem when they start to identify more with the 'persona' than themselves).

• ANIMA IS THE PROTOTYPE OF WOMAN THAT'S HELD BY A MAN AND;
• ANIMUS IS A MAN IN A WOMAN'S MIND. FEMININE SIDE VS MASCULINE SIDE.

SENSATION; RATIONAL THINKING; FEELING AND INTUITING.

• FEMINIST.
• THERE IS A LOT OF "MEN" PSYCHOLOGY THAT DOES NOT APPLY TO WOMEN
• e.g. women aren't obsessed with "penis envy". If women wanted to be men it was because they wanted to be freer to make their own choices.
• THOUGHT THIS WAS OFFENSIVE AND CONDESCENDING. More based on society^
• THOUGHT THAT CULTURAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS BETTER SHAPED PERSONALITY.
• IMPORTANCE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT (not childhood).

• HOSTILITY IS CAUSED BY PARENTAL TREATMENT. E.G. DIDN'T GET WARMTH FEEL SMALL, WEAK, HELPLESS AND DEPENDENT.
• REPRESSION (e.g. "need to repress my hostility because I'm scared to lose love").
• ADULT BEHAVIOUR IS DONE TO TRY AND GET OVER THE ANXIETY WE ACQUIRED IN CHILDHOOD.
• THE SOLUTION IS NEUROTIC TRENDS. (e.g. we alienate the real-self and identify more with the false/despised-self).

• 1. COMPLIANCE (eg. moving towards). Are too dependent on others. Needs are to be wanted, helped and accepted.
• 2. AGGRESSION (e.g. moving against). Want to be better than others, be perfect, exploit and achieve.
• 3. WITHDRAWAL. (e.g. moving away). Wants to be independent. Needs emotional and social distance from others.
• =WANTS TO CREATE A FRIENDLY WORLD, WANT TO SURVIVE IN A COMPETITIVE SOCIETY AND WANTS TO ATTAIN INTEGRITY AND SERENITY.

• THE REAL-SELF (eg what we really are. Promotes healthy growth and it represents our unique goals, interests and abilities).
• THE IDEAL-SELF (eg. fake. What we think we should be. It hinders healthy growth and takes over in many neurotic personalities).

EMPHASIZED LIBIDO AND THE CONFLICTS EXPERIENCED AT EACH STAGE AND THEIR OUTCOMES. ***TEXTBOOK.

• ANIMA IS THE PROTOTYPE OF WOMAN THAT'S HELD BY A MAN AND;
• ANIMUS IS A MAN IN A WOMAN'S MIND. FEMININE SIDE VS MASCULINE SIDE.

EMOTIONALLY IMPORTANT PEOPLE ARE CALLED "OBJECTS" AND IT STATES THAT RELATIONSHIPS ARE MAIN SOURCE OF PLEASURE AND PAIN. FOUR THEMES; 1.  EVERY RELATIONSHIP HAS SOME DEGREE OF PLEASURE E.G. SATISFACTION AND PAIN E.G. FRUSTRATION. E.G. THE BREAST; 2. A MIX OF LOVE AND HATE; 3. PARTS VS. THE WHOLE PERSON E.G. TO BABIES THE MOTHER IS THE BREAST AND; 4. THE PSYCHE OF THE E.G. BABY IS AWARE OF AND DISTURBED BY THESE CONTRADICTIONS. EACH OBJECT HAS A "GOOD" PART AND A "BAD" PART.

• ANXIOUS AND AMBIVALENT. (e.g. hit-or-miss home situations. They will get upset when their mother disappears and try to cling to teachers at school).
• AVOIDANT. (e.g. aren't distressed. They will ignore the mother when she returns. Can be hostile and defiant).
• Mothers tend to not like hugs and physical contact.
• SECURE (e.g. They have faith in themselves and caregivers. Greet mother happily and can be soothed easily).
• They like to explore the environment with encouragement from caregivers. MORE.

~

• WE SHOULD WATCH WHAT THE PERSON DOES.
• DIRECT AND OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR IS MORE IMPORTANT (e.g. private introspection + the mind, cognitions and the unconscious aren't valid because we no-one can prove it).
• These are too subjective, non-measurable and too hard to measure.

ALL KNOWLEDGE COMES FROM EXPERIENCE e.g. reality (+ the structure of the world) effects our mind and behaviour. MIND IS EMPTY AT BIRTH. AS THEY BEGIN TO EXPERIENCE THINGS THEY BUILD CHARACTERISTICS THAT HELP THEM TO RESPOND TO THE WORLD.

THE OPPOSITE OF EMPIRICISM. e.g. our mind effects how we perceive reality.

• ARISTOTLE = WHEN TWO THINGS (e.g. experiences and ideas or things that follow each other) BECOME MENTALLY ASSOCIATED. NORMALLY DUE TO "CAUSE-AND-EFFECT" E.G. THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.
• LOCKE + MILL (experiences that happen at the same time will become associated e.g. a colourless liquid + thirst).

• TIED TO EPICURUS
• WE LEARN FOR TWO REASONS E.G. TO SEEK PLEASURE AND AVOID PAIN.
• OUR ACTIONS MUST BE RIGHT IS THEY MAKE US HAPPY.
• This is why rewards and punishments shape our behaviour. Good in the long-run.
• Leads to utilitarianism. (e.g. the best society is the one that creates the happiness for the largest no. of people).

EMPIRICISM; ASSOCIATIONISM AND HEDONISM.

HABITUATION; CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND OPERANT CONDITIONING.

BEHAVIOUR CHANGES DUE TO EXPERIENCE E.G. BANGING THE GONG. THE RESPONSE CAN STAY THE SAME BUT ONLY IF THE STIMULUS CHANGES OR INCREASES OVER EACH TRIAL. also e.g. someone can win the $1000000 lottery but their happiness might decrease with time (e.g. they get used to it).

• ONE EVENT CHANGED THE MEANING OF ANOTHER E.G. THE BELL USED TO JUST BE A SOUND BUT NOW IT MEANS FOOD.
• can happen with body parts e.g. heartbeat and insulin release from the pancreas. can help with chemotherapy and can help people to control their IS.
• THEY'RE STIMULUS AND RESPONSE ASSOCIATIONS.

• THERE ARE NO INTERNAL CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR. (These are too subjective and unreliable). ALL EXTERNAL.
• e.g. conditioning is automatic and cannot be controlled by the will).
• IT'S MAIN GOALS ARE TO PREDICT AND CONTROL HUMAN/ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR.
• NOT GENETIC.
• ARE CONDITIONED TO RESPOND TO EXTERNAL STIMULI IN PREDICTABLE WAYS (e.g. consistency).
• PERSONALITY IS THEIR MOST USED HABIT SYSTEMS (e.g. shy etc.). SITUATIONS RELEASE THESE HABIT SYSTEMS.

• NEUTRAL STIMULUS (e.g. the bell) = NO RESPONSE +
• UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (e.g. food) = UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (saliva).
• THE C-STIMULUS (e.g. the bell) = THE C-RESPONSE (e.g. saliva).

• HAD DIFFERENT TEMPERAMENTS
• THIS MADE THEM REACT DIFFERENTLY TO THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.
• E.G. the types of nervous system (e.g. weak and strong). Strong (e.g. unbalanced and balanced). Balanced (e.g. mobile and slow).

• HAPPENS WHEN TO RANDOM EVENTS HAPPEN TOGETHER. CAN LEAD TO ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION.
• e.g. "why bother?" E.G. life is a series of unpredictable rewards and punishments.

• THORNDIKE (THE LAW OF EFFECT)
• eg. used cats. The puzzle box. Could escape by pressing a wire. The box lid would spring open and they'd get food. Would escape quicker.

• BEHAVIOUR IS CONTROLLED BY EXTERNAL FACTORS (all genetic explanations are invalid).
• WE HAVE NO FREE WILL OR HUMAN NATURE.
• NOTICED THAT SALIVATING DID NOT EFFECT PAVLOV'S DOG'S, (HE CALLED THIS RESPONDENT CONDITIONING) BUT PRESSING THE WIRE DID. 
• used the skinner box. Pigeons and rats pressed a button to get food. The rate will increase. CALLED REINFORCEMENT.
• The stimulus is either a punishment, positive-reinforcer or a negative-reinforcer.

USED TO STOP AN ACT. USED BY PARENTS AND TEACHERS TO; 1. START SOME BEHAVIOURS; 2. MAINTAIN SOME BEHAVIOURS AND 3. PREVENT SOME BEHAVIOURS.

• 1. NEED AN ALTERNATIVE E.G. REWARD.
• 2. BE CLEAR ABOUT WHAT BEHAVIOUR AND UNDER WHAT SITUATIONS IT WILL BE PUNISHED (e.g. don't say you're being a "bad girl").
• 3. TIMING AND CONSISTENCY (e.g. swatting your dog away when they greet you because there is trash scattered everywhere).
• AVOID MIXED MESSAGES AND ONCE THEY KNOW WHAT THEY'RE DOING WRONG YOU CAN USE A SECONDARY PUNISHMENT E.G. THE CAT AND HISSING.

AROUSES EMOTION E.G. ANGER; IT'S HARD TO BE CONSISTENT; IT CAN GET BAD; IT TEACHES A MISUSE OF POWER AND; IT MAKES THEM WANT TO CONCEAL IT.

• 1. IT IS NOT VERY SPECULATIVE METHOD.
• 2. IT'S PARSOMONEOUS (e.g. can explain a lot with easy variables). BUT IT STILL CAN'T EXPLAIN EVERYTHING (e.g. language development).
• 3. IT IGNORES MOTIVATION, AWARENESS, THOUGHT AND COGNITION. 
• 4. It's based on research with animals and this data was extrapolated to humans.
• 5. IT IGNORES SOCIAL LEARNING (e.g. the animals are by themselves) and;
• 6. THE ANIMALS ARE TREATED AS BEING PASSIVE.

CLAIMS THAT THE WAY WE THINK, PLAN AND BEHAVE IS ALL CAUSED BY LEARNING.

• EXPECTANCY VALUE APPROACH E.G. behaviour is determined by the reinforcement size and the outcome of your behaviour eg. the $35000 vs $20000.
• EXPECTANCY AND LOCUS OF CONTROL E.G. if you think it'll work you will put more effort in. Have HGE (e.g. what they do will effect them).

S == E.G. THAT A CERTAIN BEHAVIOUR AT A CERTAIN TIME WILL LEAD TO A CERTAIN OUTCOME. G = E.G. WILL ANYTHING YOU DO MAKE A DIFFERENCE?

• OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (e.g. the bobo-doll experiment).
• RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM E.G. WE SEEK OUT ENVIRONMENTS AND THESE CAN CHANGE.
• e.g. THE PERSON > ENVIRONMENT AND > BEHAVIOUR TRIAD.
• EFFICACY EXPECTATIONS = THE PROBABILITY THAT YOU DO SOMETHING IN THE FIRST PLACE.
• E.G. IT'S YOUR BELIEF ABOUT YOURSELF AND WHAT YOU ARE CAPABLE OF DOING. e.g. I want to stop being scared of sneks but I'm too scared to get near it
• IT'S ALSO EFFECTED BY YOUR SELF-CONCEPT.

• A MODIFICATION.
• PERSONALITY TRAITS DOES NOT CAUSE BEHAVIOUR. e.g. There is no personality outside the environment.
• GLOBAL TRAITS (e.g. BIG-5.) AND AGGREGATION ARE NOT USEFUL. BEHAVIOUR IS VARIABLE. The stable system can explain the variability in our behaviour.

• ENCODINGS (e.g. we encode things to have different meanings).
• EXPECTANCIES AND BELIEFS (e.g. outcomes. consequences and reinforcements).
• GOALS AND VALUES
• (e.g. emotions and reactions. What we want to achieve and what is worth doing).
• COMPETENCIES AND SELF-REGULATORY PLANS (e.g. what we "can" do. Plans and strategies).

~

• DOES IT PRODUCE (MEDIATE) OR EFFECT (MODERATE) THE OUTCOME? 
• eg. narcissism > perceived threat > aggression (participants who were narcissistic were only aggressive when there was a perceived threat).
• THERE'S FOUR DIFFERENT WAYS THIS CAN WORK.
• 1. PERSONALITY > OUTCOME.
• 2. PREDICTOR > PERSONALITY> OUTCOME.
• 3. PERSONALITY > OTHER MODERATOR VARIABLE > OUTCOME.
• AND 4; PERSONALITY > MEDIATOR > OUTCOME.

SITUATIONS THAT ARE CONSTANTLY PRIMED AND RE-PRIMED (THEY'RE CHRONICALLY ACCESSIBLE) BECOME PART OF OUR PERSONALITIES. e.g. Evolution might have primed gender. Most come from experience. e.g. one child might grow up and be alert to honesty and another bravery (based on their parents values).

when talking about a problem with a romantic partner the slightest bit of disinterest or irritation will make them feel rejected. = anxiety = ACTUAL REJECTION.

RELATED TO CHRONIC ACCESSIBILITY. CAN LEAD TO PEOPLE TO THINK OF AN AMBIGUOUS SITUATION AS THREATENING. DREAMS MIGHT ALSO BECOME HOSTILE. A HOSTILE CHILD MAKE A STRESSFUL SITUATION WORSE. MORE CONSTRUCTIVE WHEN THEY GET TO THINK ABOUT HOW THEY'LL ACT.

SCREENS OUT INFORMATION THAT MIGHT MAKE THE PERSON ANXIOUS OR UNCOMFORTABLE. e.g. sexually-charged words. Said they couldn't see the word even though they were sweating + spent longer looking at them. The unconscious part of the mind was reading them and the conscious part wasn't.

SOME PEOPLE MIGHT BE TOO WELL-DEFENDED AND CAN'T SEE SOCIAL CHANGES AND DANGERS. SOME MIGHT BE LESS VIGILANT.

WHAT IS IN THEIR MIND AT THAT MOMENT AND THEIR ONGOING REALITY (AKA. STM). STM CAN REMEMBER 7 CHUNKS/IDEAS. e.g. a shy person who is talking to an attractive person might have a lot of things running through their head which does not leave a lot of room for conversation (might seem distracted). CHUNKS ARE ALSO HEAVILY EFFECTED BY OUR CULTURE.

• 1. E.G. HEARTBEAT AND REFLEXES NEED TO HAPPEN WITHOUT THINKING ABOUT IT;
• 2. 7 IS NOT A LOT AND;
• 3. WE DO THINGS WITHOUT KNOWING WHY AND WE HAVE THOUGHTS THAT WE DON'T UNDERSTAND. THE MIND MIGHT BE DOING THINGS THAT WE DON'T KNOW ABOUT.

• 1. PERCEPTION.
• 2. WANTING (E.G. MOTIVATION.). What we want (e.g. goals) and how people get what they want (e.g. strategies).
• 3. FEELING (E.G. EMOTIONS). How and why we feel different emotions?
• 4. THINKING (e.g. what characterizes our thinking. Automatic or controlled?).

• GOALS ARE THE END ACHIEVEMENT.
• STRATEGIES ARE WHAT THE PERSON USES TO GET THERE.
• THESE CAN EITHER BE SPECIFIC OR GENERAL.
• CAN BE HIERARCHICAL (E.G. SHORT OR LONG). e.g. want a nice garden so today you will mow your lawn. Knowing your LTG helps you to organize your STG's better.
• PEOPLE WHO DON'T HAVE LONG-TERM GOALS SPEND A LOT MORE TIME DOING THINGS THAT DON'T MATTER. GET'S CHAOTIC.

• UNIQUE TO THE INDIVIDUAL.
• A CURRENT CONCERN WILL STAY IN THEIR MIND UNTIL THE GOAL IS DONE OR IT'S ABANDONED. e.g. losing weight.
• PERSONAL PROJECTS E.G. WHAT PEOPLE DO (e.g. life tasks). (e.g. the effort that someone puts into going to prom with "brad").
• PERSONAL STRIVING E.G. LTG'S THAT ORGANIZE BROAD AREAS OF A PERSON'S LIFE e.g. being attractive or being better than other people.
• ARE HELD CONSCIOUSLY AT LEAST SOME OF THE TIME. THESE BEHAVIOURS ARE AIMED AT A CERTAIN OUTCOME. THEY CAN CHANGE.
• THEY THEMSELVES CANNOT BE ORGANIZED E.G. STRIVING ARE PRESENTED IN A RANDOM ORDER.

NEED FOR ACHEIVEMENT; AFFILIATION OR E.G. INTIMACY AND; POWER. NOT ALL FIT INTO THIS THOUGH.

• CAN BE CHANGED AND ARE EFFECTED BY EXTERNAL FACTORS.
• J = WE TRY TO JUDGE OR VALIDATE ONE OF OUR ATTRIBUTES E.G. I AM SMART.
• e.g. self-attributes = they will strive towards positive judgments.
• D = THE DESIRE TO IMPROVE YOURSELF E.G. I WANT TO BE SMARTER.
• eg. a math student who gets angry when he can't solve a problem (J) and another who is patient and tries to improve (D).

• E = INTELLIGENCE CAN'T CHANGE AND IS UNCONTROLLABLE. TRY TO GAIN POSITIVE OR AVOID NEGATIVE JUDGEMENTS. Either has a high (e.g. helplessness or low (mastery-orientated) confidence in ability.
• I = INTELLIGENCE IS MALLEABLE AND THEY WANT TO INCREASE THEIR COMPETENCY (This means that they can cope better with failure.). Have high>low confidence. Are always mastery-orientated.

MAKING FRIENDS (J). OR WE WANT YOU TO GET BETTER AT MAKING FRIENDS (D). THE FIRST LETTER WASN'T ACCEPTED AND THEY HAD TO WRITE ANOTHER ONE. THEY THEN JOINED. THE J-GROUP'S SECOND LETTERS WERE NOT AS GOOD. 1. HAS IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS; 2.  CAN OCCUR BEYOND SOCIAL SITUATIONS AND; 3. IT DEMONSTRATES THAT THE GOAL THEY PURSUE CAN BE INSIDE OR OUT.

• THERE'S TWO MAIN COMPONENTS; 1. DIFFERENTIATION (e.g. do people use lots of dimensions to make decisions?)
• 2. INTEGRATION (e.g. what are the complex links between these dimensions?).

• INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY ^ WHEN PEOPLE'S VALUES (e.g. freedom & equality.) ARE IN CONFLICT.
• >IC = CREATIVE AND NOT NICE AND <IC = SIMPLISTIC AND NICE.
• 1. When there is no value discrepancy then people will make decisions easier (e.g. low IC). People who are completely against/for.
• 2. When there is value discrepancy people will find decision-making hard. who can see both sides (moderate).

• APPRAISAL E.G. WHERE A STIMULUS IS JUDGED; PHYSICAL AND FACIAL RESPONSES; NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOURS E.G. JUMPING FOR JOY AND CLENCHING AND; MOTIVES E.G. SPREADING JOY OR HARM.
• APPRAISALS MIGHT NOT HAVE TO COME FIRST. COULD GET PHYSICAL STUFF.
• 1. get an A+; 2. get's really happy; 3. want to expand that happiness eg. calls her parents etc.

• "I" IS THE ONTOLOGICAL SELF (e.g. The "person" in your head. e.g. the soul. It's how you feel deep down).
• e.g. the self-doing the looking.
• AND ME IS THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL SELF (e.g. describing yourself as friendly. The statements that you would make about yourself).
• e.g. the self that is being looked at.
• e.g. everything we hold dear (traits, body, home, family and possessions etc). The same reaction for someone hitting your child and someone hitting you.

• 1. SELF-REGULATION (restrain impulses and concentrate on long-term goals).
• 2. INFORMATION-PROCESSING FILTER (e.g. helps us remember and organize the information that matters).
• CAN HELP US FEEL BETTER ABOUT OURSELVES.
• 3. HELPS US RELATE TO OTHER PEOPLE. (we understand others through the lens of our own experience e.g. distress).
• 4. IDENTITY.

• THE AFRICAN, JAPANESE, CHINESE AND NATIVE AMERICAN SELF 
• (others, tribe + family and one's role is relative to their significant others (eg. the traditional-self in Chinese women).
• THE WESTERN SELF (e.g. individualistic and stable).
• NOTE THAT RELIGIONS HAVE A DIFFERENT SELF. 
• HINDU (the true self is the cosmic absolute) and THE BUDDHIST SELF (e.g. there is no stable and distinct self).

• THE SELF = has a range of features, independent, can be positive or negative and is perspective and culture dependent.
• THE TRUE SELF = moral, positive, perspective independent and stable.

• 1. DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE E.G. FACTS AND KNOWLEDGE. CAN DECLARE IT
• 2. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE E.G. ACTIONS (e.g. a shy person might avoid people). e.g. patterns of social skills + can compromise the relational self and the implicit self (unc).
• E.G. LEARNING TO RIDE A BIKE. CAN'T BE EXPLAINED WITHOUT DOING IT.

• A SUBSET OF THE DECLARATIVE SELF (e.g. facts and opinions about your traits).
• Has evolutionary roots. Warns us about rejection.
• SOMETIMES TRYING TO SELF-ENHANCE CAN BE BAD. E.G. BOOMERANG EFFECT (the statements feel too extreme).
• Needs to be more than just making people feel better about themselves. Our own opinion is important.

• A COGNITIVE STRUCTURE OF THE DECLARATIVE SELF. USE S-OR-B-DATA (e.g. RT to words like "friendly" when testing sociability).
• THE SCHEMA MIGHT EFFECT HOW WE PROCESS INFORMATION. (Might remember related information better).
• Heavily based on past-experiences e.g. I'm a kind person because I do nice things for people. What if this was erased?

• INFORMATION GOES INTO THE LTM WHEN YOU REPEAT IT AND ELABORATE ON IT
• EASIER IF IT RELATES TO ONE'S SELF (E.G. THE SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT).
• e.g. it remains accessible for a much longer time.
• EXPLAINS WHY PERSONALITY MEANINGFUL MEMORIES STAY WITH YOU LONGER.

• THE SELF-SCHEMA EFFECTS WHAT WE DO.
• eg. if we think that we are sociable then we are more likely to make friends. SETS THE LIMITS OF WHAT WE WILL ATTEMPT.
• SHOWS HOW ONE'S SELF CONCEPT CAN BE BAD.

• WE HAVE TWO DESIRED SELVES AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM AN OUR ACTUAL SELVES DETERMINES HOW WE FEEL.
• THE IDEAL SELF (e.g. what we could be at our best-self).
• AND THE OUGHT SELF. (e.g. we we should be).
• GET DEPRESSED WHEN YOU DON'T OBTAIN YOUR IDEAL SELF (you're a failure);
• GET ANXIOUS WHEN YOU'RE NOT YOUR OUGHT SELF (avoid punishments).

• 1. CAN SEE THE WORLD WITHOUT DISTORTION (incl. themselves).
• 2. IN A BETTER POSITION TO MAKE GOOD DECISIONS ON IMPORTANT ISSUES eg marriage.

• other people are better a predicting overt behaviour than our own self-judgement 
• Attending to the self is pretty hard. Better at doing it to other people.
• WE CAN SOMETIMES LOOK PAST THE SELF.
• e.g. an alcoholic might start off by blaming external factors but eventually realize he is an alcoholic.

• 1. INTROSPECTION TO LOOK INTO OUR OWN MINDS.
• 2. GET FEEDBACK FROM OTHER PEOPLE.
• 3. WE CAN OBSERVE OUR OWN BEHAVIOUR AND TRY TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS.

• NOT READILY AVAILABLE TO THE CONSCIOUS. TESTED VIA THE IAT.
• E.G. THE IMPLICIT-SELF-ESTEEM IAT. 
• USED "GOOD", "BAD", "ME" AND "NOT ME".
• HSE had quicker RT'S when they associated "good" and "me" words. Vice versa.
• IT CAN ALSO BE DONE WITH THE BIG-5 TRAITS AND NARCISSISM.

• IS COMPREHENSIVE AND HAVE BOTH ENVIRONMENT AND PERSON VARIABLES.
• ITS VARIABLES CAN BE OPERATIONALIZED.
• IT'S POORLY INTEGRATED. (e.g. There's too many small theories and how do they relate?).
• IT'S CONCEPTS ARE CONFUSING.
• WOULD BE GOOD TO TRY AND INTEGRATE IT WITH THE TRAIT APPROACH.

• AN INNER EXPERIENCE.
• DEVIATES FROM THE EXPECTATIONS OF THEIR CULTURE.
• ARE "SOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE". e.g. awkwardness, suspiciousness and arrogance.
• PERVASIVE AND INFLEXIBLE
• COMES ABOUT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD AND IS STABLE.

• NEW EDITIONS WILL NEED TO MAKE THE DIAGNOSIS MORE OBJECTIVE (WITH A UNIVERSAL VOCABULARY).
• WE NEED MORE DESCRIPTIVE LABELS (for insurance reimbursement purposes).

• 1. UNUSUAL AND EXTREME (e.g. they're an extreme version of a certain trait).
• 2. THEY CAUSE PROBLEMS
• 3. THEY EFFECT SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
• 4. STABLE. ARE NORMALLY EVIDENT FIRST IN ADOLESCENCE.
• 5. EGO-SYNTONIC (DON'T THINK THERE'S ANYTHING WRONG.). Whereas people with depression and anxiety are ego-dystonic (they want to be cured).

• ABC. FOUR HAVE BEEN SINCE DELETED.
• A = ECCENTRIC PATTERNS OF THINKING (e.g. schizotypal, schizoid + paranoid).
• B = IMPULSIVE AND ERRATIC
• e.g. histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial and borderline.
• C = ANXIOUS AND AVOIDANCE (e.g. dependent, avoidance and OCPD).

• IDIOSYNCRATIC.
• TRIGGERED BY CLOSE INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS.
• ECCENTRIC BEHAVIOUR AND DEPERSONALIZATION OR DISASSOCIATION.
• e.g. odd thoughts, weird ideas and behaviour, superstitious, they wear messy and unkempt clothes. EXTREME.
• Relates to people with weird interests, skeptical, weird in social conversations and hard to engage.
• COGNITION = scattered, magical thinking, superstitious and paranoid.

• TRIGGERED BY THEIR SELF-EVALUATION.
• THINKS THAT THEY ARE SUPERIOR AND HAVE ALL THE POWER (e.g. entitlement)
• GRANDIOSITY AND ARROGANT.
• TRIES TO EVOKE A RESPONSE FROM OTHER PEOPLE USING TACTICS (e.g. "Don't you love my dress").
• NEEDS CONSTANT ADMIRATION AND THEY WILL EXPECT SPECIAL TREATMENT.
• EXPLOIT AND THEY HAVE A LACK OF EMPATHY.
• BOASTFUL. THEY HAVE AN EXAGGERATED SENSE OF THEIR OWN ABILITIES.
• IMPATIENT.

• TRIGGERED BY SOCIAL STANDARDS AND RULES.
• Self-reliant, cunning, risk-taking, superficial, impulsive and externally-orientated.
• THE CORE COMPONENTS ARE DECEIT AND MANIPULATION. They're irritable, reckless and have low empathy.
• E.G. VANDALISM, HARASSMENT, THEFT AND OTHER ILLEGAL ACTIVITIES.
• IT DANGEROUS WHEN PAIRED WITH PSYCHOPATHY (note that not all people with APD are psychopaths).

LOW WITHDRAWAL, HIGH ATTENTION-SEEKING AND LOW ANXIETY.

WERE SHOWN A SHORT CLIP OF MAX. SECURITY INMATES. THEY'RE RATINGS OF PSYCHOPATHIC TRAITS WAS SIG. CORRELATED TO CLINICIAN RATED SCORES. =FIRST IMPRESSIONS ARE IMPORTANT.

• 1. INTERPERSONAL (eg superficial charm, grandiose, liar, cunning & manipulative)
• 2. AFFECTIVE (e.g. no remorse & empathy shallow and can't accept responsibility for their actions).
• 3. LIFESTYLE (eg. needs stimulation, parasite, impulsive, irresponsible and has no LTG'S).
• 4. ANTISOCIAL (e.g. impulsive, early behavioural problems and criminal).

• 1. DIS-INHIBITION (e.g. impulsive and can't regulate their urges).
• 2. BOLDNESS (^self-esteem, calm under pressure and can handle uncertainty).
• 3. MEANNESS (e.g. exploitative and no empathy).

• UNSTABLE AND CONFUSED BEHAVIOUR, A POOR SENSE OF IDENTITY AND SELF-HARM.
• DON'T KNOW WHO THEY ARE.
• ALSO DON'T UNDERSTAND THEIR OWN ACTIONS (e.g. cutting).
• CHAOTIC THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIOURS AND EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY.
• SUICIDE IS COMMON IN PEOPLE WITH BPD.

• HAVE A FEAR OF FAILURE, REJECTION AND CRITICISM. This causes shyness +and avoidance.
• THEY EXPECT THE WORST. WORRIED THEY WON'T BE ACCEPTED AND MOCKED.
• WITHDRAWAL.

• THE NEED FOR ORDER AND STRUCTURE. ARE BOUND BY RITUALS.
• WORKAHOLIC E.G. THEY "HAVE TO MUCH TO DO".
• CAN'T THROUGH ANYTHING OUT BECAUSE THEY FEEL LIKE THEY'LL NEED IT ONE DAY.
• SOME "LIKE" BEING THAT WAY. THEY CAN BE EGO-SYNTONIC.

• 1. CO-MORBIDITY (e.g. 3-5 PD'S ARE DIAGNOSED. Which one do we treat first?)
• 2. WITHIN-CATEGORY HETEROGENEITY (6 sub-categories of BPD).
• 3. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PERSONALITY (eg. grandiosity in NPD is a continuous trait. Where's the clinical cut-off?)

• IT'S A NEW DIMENSIONAL-CATEGORICAL APPROACH.
• 1. has impairment and the degree to which they are characterized by maladaptive traits.
• 2. 6/10. Each has a different impairment and trait.
• 3. More consistent with the trait approach. It reflects the extremes.

• A&B ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT.
• A. <> IMPAIRMENT IN PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING. (with the level of personality functioning scale).
• B. PATHOLOGICAL PERSONALITY TRAITS. (Measured via the PID-5 which assesses 5 maladaptive PTD. Can be S-DATA OR I-DATA).
• c. pervasive.
• d. stable and it's onset can be traced back.
• e&f. can't be better explained by something else (MD + medical condition).
• g. It's atypical given their developmental stage or their sociocultural environment.

• O = PSYCHOTICIS (Bizzare thoughts and eccentric behaviour).
• C = DISINHIBITION (careless and impulsive).
• E = DETACHMENT (withdrawal and they will avoid emotional contact).
• A = ANTAGONISM (deceitful, grandiose and manipulative).
• N = NEGATIVE AFFECT

• STIGMA
• AN ^LEVEL OF PERSONALITY PATHOLOGY MIGHT BE NORMAL IN ADOLESCENCE.
• MIGHT SHOW "FEATURES" INSTEAD OF "TRAITS".

HARD TO TEST.

• "A" WERE MORE JITTERY AND OVER-REACTIVE. MORE PRONE TO A HEART ATTACK. Not much about the "striving to achieve" goal that effects their behavioral style.
• HAD NOTHING TO DO WITH THEIR AMBITION.
• DEPRESSION AND NEGATIVE EMOTIONALIITY HAVE A BAD EFFECT ON HEALTH.
• PEOPLE WHO EXPERIENCE DISEASE
• FEEL WORSE.
• CONTENTIOUSNESS IS GOOD FOR YOU (e.g. positive outcomes and a long life.).
• Lower consciousness = bad self-control and LT-health planning.
• SUCCESS AND STRIVING IS GOOD FOR HEALTH.

• 1. HAVING THE ABILITY TO DO THINGS THAT YOU WANT.
• 2. FEELING GOOD.
• 3. HAVING SUPPORTIVE SOCIAL NETWORKS AND BEING SUPPORTIVE YOURSELF.
• 4. IS PRODUCTIVE AND CAN GET THINGS DONE.
• 5. HAVE A GOOD MEMORY AND CAN MAKE GOOD DECISIONS.
• 6. ALIVE.