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-The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant.
- Irony/Ironic
- *The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In a verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and the readers think ought to happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction, but know to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create polgnancy or humor.
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-When two words, phrases, images, ideas are placed close together or side by side for comparison or contrast.
Juxtaposition
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-From the Greek word "simple" or "plain." ______ is a figure of thought in which a point is affirmed by negating its opposite. It is a special form of understatement, where the surface denial serves, through ironic contrast, to reinforce the underlying assertion.
Litotes
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-A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence/
Loose Sentence
*A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and controversial. Generally loose sentences create loose style.
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-A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.
- Metaphor
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- *Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.
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-A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name." _______ is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.
Metonymy
*A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather that "the President declared is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional response.
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-This term has two distinct meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and eals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The second meaning of _____ is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work.
- Mood
- ☻Setting, tone, and events can affect mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.
- *The indicative mood is only used for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly."
- *The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job."
- *The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!"
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-The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.
Narrative
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-A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.
- Onomatopoeia
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- *Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you don't know examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.
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-From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," and ________ is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.
- Oxymoron
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- *Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.
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-A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
Paradox
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-It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase.
- Parallelism
- ☻Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another."
- * A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens's novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity..."
- *The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
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-A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.
Parody
*As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerated distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require the knowledge of the original.
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-An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.
Pedantic
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-A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone.
- Periodic Sentence
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- *For example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.
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-A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. _______ is used to make these abstractions, animal, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
Personification
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-Figure of addition and emphasis which intentionally employs a series of conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and nor, but, or, yet, so) not normally found in successive words, phrases or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words, phrases or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. The effect is a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up - a persistence of intensity.
Polysyndeton
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-In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point view, and many subdivisions within those.
- Point of View
- ☻This definition applies in question in the multiple-choice section. However on the essay portion of the exam, the "point of view" carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.
- *(1) the first person narrator and tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action).
- *(2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the "third person omniscient" point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge., present the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and things at any given moment. The "third person limited omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters.
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-One type of subject complement is an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is an the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.
Predicative Adjective
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-A second type of subject complement - a noun. group of nouns, or noun clause that names the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.
Predicate nominative
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-The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element (of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern).
Repetition
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-One of the major divisions of genre, _____ refers to fiction and non-fiction, including all its forms. In ______ the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the lone.
Prose
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-From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
Rhetoric
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-This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing.
Rhetorical modes
- ☙☙☙☙These four modes are sometimes referred to as mode of discourse.The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows:
- (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics.
- (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.
- (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective.
- (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.
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-Differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no answer would suffice. It is used for effect, emphasis, or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the fact at hand.
Rhetorical Question [erotesis]
*Ex. We shrink from change; yet is there anything that can come into being without it? What does Nature hold dearer, or more proper to herself? Could you have a hot bath unless the firewood underwent some change? Could you be nourished if the food suffered no change? Do you not see, then, that change in yourself is the same order, and no less necessary to Nature? -Marcus Aurelius
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-From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," _______ involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony is a device, but not all ironic statements are _________, that is, intended to ridicule. When well done, ______ can be witty and insightful, when done poorly, it's simply cruel.
Sarcasm
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-A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, _______ is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively the ______: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm.
Satire
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