-
you can increase enzyme specificity by increasing ____ bonds ____ bonds and transient covalent bonds
H-Bonds
ionic bonds
-
Arteries have ____ smooth muscle than veins
arteries have thick walls compared to veins and are more rigid.
Veins will expand more than arteries
----------------------------
arteries are larger and more muscular than veins and more elastic
more
-
arteries:
- more elastic
- thicker
- more muscular
- more rigid
- more smooth muscle
- larger
Veins:
expand more
-
formula: Formal Charge = [# of valence electrons on atom] – [non-bonded electrons + number of bonds].
-
ionic bonds = no sigma bond
-
small distance between HOMO and LUMO means smaller energy of light absorbed so greater wavelength (explains orange / red color of B-Carotene)
-
C = (F-32)/1.8
F = (C x 1.8) + 32
-
Saponification
_____ hydrolyzes triglycerides to form glycerol and soap
NaOH
-
- LH surge induces ovulation
- Ovarian follicles secrete estrogen during proliferative phase of menstrual cycle to have a 2-3 fold increase in thickness of endometrium
- FSH plays an important role in development of ovarian follicles increasing estrogen secretion
-
Volumetric flow rate (veins/ arteries / blood flow)
A1V1 = A2V2
A = Pi(r^2)
-halve diameter halve radius
- Area decrease by factor of 4 means velocity increase by factor of 4
-
layrnx - houses vocal cords
-
larger diameter and shorter length = less resistance
V = IR
-
1L = 1kg
1 pound = 0.45 kg
1ppm = 1 mg/kg
1ppt = 1 ng/L
-
To increase reaction rate
____ vmax
_____ km
increase vmax
decrease km
-
increase pH / decrease H+ ions to increase electromotive force
-
spontaneous reactions proceed forward and make more products
-
fisher projection R v S: order priority then switch sign
-
amines are ___ nucleophillic than alcohols because _______
more
they are not as electronegative. More electronegativity means less nucleophillic
-
electron and molecular geometry of atoms only differ when there is a lone pair on atoms
-
Vitamin D when activated by parathyroid hormone promotes bone strength although it seems counter intuitive it helps counter the resorption of bone by parathyroid in the first place.
-
Vapor pressure and boiling point
If the solution has a higher boiling point than the pure solvent then it has a lower vapor pressure than the pure solvent because it has more solute and less water (or solvent) so it vaporize quicker but the more solutes means it takes longer to boil
-
Add diols to ketone to create ketal to protect it from LiAlH4 reduction
-
when hydrophobic amino acid or molecule placed in water water molecules must rearrange in order to maximize H-bonding and since hbonds cant be formed with hydrophobic molecules water is more restricted in its freedom of movement and entropy decreases
-
lewis - electron
bronsted - proton
lewis base - e- donor
lewis acid - e- acceptor
bronsted acid - H+ donor
bronsted base - H+ acceptor
-
these units can be used to measure heat/energy:
J
m x N
s x W
not W x m
-
greater reduction potential = more likely to accept electrons
-
hardy wein :
- no mutations
- large population size
- no net migration of individuals into or out population
- random mating
- genes in population all equally successful at reproducing
-
Proline - cyclic imine that introduces a bend in the protein. Found most often at beginning of alpha helices
-
transporting Na, Cl-, and glucose out of cell requires ATP
Transporting K+ into cell requires ATP also (Na/K+ ATPase)
-
ADH - Increase aquaporin channels in distal collecting tubule and collecting duct
-
H2SO4, NaCr2O7
&
H2SO4, CrO3, Acetone
Primary alcohol --> carboxylic acid
secondary alcohol -- > Ketone
-
PCC
Primary alcohol --- > Aldehyde
Secondary alcohol -- > Ketone
-
adrenal medulla - ectoderm
adrenal cortex , spleen, lymph vessels- mesoderm
-
Growth in long bones occurs in the epiphyseal plates
-
1 mol = ____ molecules
1 mol = 6 x 10^23 molecules
-
Urea cycle is to safely eliminate toxic ammonia from the body. Converts ammonia to urea for excretion.
When amino acids are metabolized ammonia builds up in the body.
-
SEVEN UP
- Seminiferous tubules
- epididymis
- vas deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- nothing
- urethra
- penis
-
Use H2O to make R S Chiral products from one reactant because it is Polar protic and hydrogen bonds stabilize anion intermediate and favor SN1 mechanism
-
Ka > 10^-7 = more H+ than HA- ions
-
Change in electrical potential:
Delta V x q (charge)
-
myelin sheath acts to decrease capacitance because capacitors in series have a lower net capacitance
-
hypokalemia - low blood potassium would cause cell hyperpolarization cuz potassium would try to escape through leak channels
-
Lyase breaks ATP to form cAMP and pyrophosphate WITHOUT use of water.
-
coordinate covalent = when both e- are contributed by one of the atoms
ex- ammonia + H+ = ammonium
-
Polar covalent bond- shared electrons but large difference in electronegativity
-
brain does not use ketones primarily until starving state not fasting state
-
presence of chyme in duodenum causes release of brush-order enzymes like dissacharidases and peptidases
maltase- maltose -> glucose + glucose
sucrase - sucrose -> glucose + fructose
lactase - lactose -> glucose + galactose
enteropeptidase - Enteropeptidase converts trypsinogen (a zymogen) into its active form trypsin
-
lower atomic radii for an atom means when bound to itself it would have a shorter and stronger bond than something with a greater atomic radii
Nitrogen has more protons than carbon so its atomic radii is smaller and N-N bond shorter than C-C bond cuz atoms would be closer together.
-
6 member rings are more stable than 5 member rings due to less angle strain
alpha anomer more stable than beta anomer because of less steric hinderance with adjacent OH group. beta anomer OH group is in cis with adjacent OH
-
Q > keq = deltaG > 0
so reverse reaction is favored
-
Downfield The Nucleus feels stronger magnetic field. Deshielding is the opposite of shielding. When we say that an atom is deshielded, we mean that “A nucleus whose chemical shift has been increased due to removal of electron density, magnetic induction, or other effects.”
so on ethylbromide the deshielded H would be near the electronegative Br- and that would be downfield
n + 1 rule (neighbor + 1)
downfield is closer to 10 to left and upfield is closer to 1 to right
-
only palm of hand and sole of feet have stratium lucidum epidermal layer
any other area of body cut would penetrate 4 layers if cut all the way through to muscle
-
aldol formation - enolate functions as nucleophile
H+ extracted first from OH and enolate forms to be nucleophile
retro aldol - enolate functions as a leaving group
-
break down products of lipids ___ ___ ____
no break down of lipids means more cholesterol in blood
acetyl CoA, malonyl CoA, glycerol
-
embedded proteins - on exterior or interior of cell and involved in transcriptional changes
peripheral proteins do not have pro-transcriptional function, exist on membrane surfaces
-
Gq receptor increase activity of phospholipase C, which cleaves PIP2 into diacylglycerol & IP3.
IP3 production leads to release of intracellular Ca2+ stores.
-
chronic effects of high level of cortisol can lead to weight gain and hypertension
-
Stable quiescent cells - only divide when needed and spend most of time in G0 (liver cells, endocrine gland, proximal tubules of kidney)
- Vascular endothelial cells
- Parenchymal cells of solid organs (e.g., liver, kidney, pancreas)
- Mesenchymal cells (e.g., fibroblasts, smooth muscle)
----------------------------------------
Permanent G0 - brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, red blood cells (RBC precusor in bone marrow can divide).
- Neurons of CNS
- Cardiac and skeletal muscle
-----------------------------
Labile cells:
- Epithelial cells (basal cells of skin; endometrium; mucosa lining GI, respiratory, and biliary tracts; etc.)
- Hematopoietic cells (e.g., bone marrow stem cells)
-
_____ cells secrete calcitonin in response to elevated calcium in blood
C-Cells
-
semilumar valves comprise the aortic and pulmonic valve which prevent backflow from aorta and pulmonary arteries
bicuspid valve prevents backflow from left ventricles to left atrium''
tricuspid valve prevents backflow from right ventricle to right atrium
LAB RAT
-
double concentration of both base and acid in titration _____ buffering capacity and _____ pH
doubles buffering capacity
pH same
-
these studies begin by identifying subjects with a particular outcome and restrospectively assessing risk factors
case control
-
RNA Pol 1- synthesize ____ to make new ribosomes.
RNA Pol 2- DNA - > _____
RNA Pol 3- DNA - > _____
rRNA
hnRNA
tRNA
-
axial skeleton - skull, vetebral column, rib cage, hyoid bone
appendicular skeleton - majority (the rest)
-
destruction of RBC occur mostly in ____ but also occurs in liver and old RBC are phagocytized by ______
spleen
macrophages
-
concentration goes up by factor of 2 and reaction rate goes up by factor of 4 means ____ order
second order
-
General adaptation syndrome:
Hormone primary in each phase
Alarm -
Resistance -
- Alarm - epinephrine
- Resistance - Cortisol
-
decrease products shift right
decrease reactants shift left
-
Indicators measure a pH change within one unit of its pKa so if you want to use an indicator to measure deviations from normal physiological pH you can use
ka 2 x 10^-8
pKa = 7.8 (physiological pH = 7.4)
-
G Cells -> parietal cells - > HCl
chief cells -> pepsinogen
mucous cells -> alkaline mucous
-
UV spec- more light absorbed = less transmittance cuz less light reaches detector
greater concentrations means more light absorbed
to absorb light at 3 different wavelengths there must be 3 different sets of pi orbitals like in benzene
400 cm^-1 is finger print region used to distinguish between similar species. this region is unique to each molecule, complex vibrations
HNMR 10.5 - 12 = CARboxylic acid
9 - 10 : aldehyde
1- 5.5: proton in OH group
0.9 - 1 - methyl group
spin-spin coupling - two non equivalent protons near each other
smaller gap between LUMO and HOMO means less energy needed to be excited, so longer wavelength absorbed with less energy carrying
-
vaccuum filtration - when desired product in solid state
gravity filtration- when desired product in liquid state
vacuum distillation- preferred with molecules with high Bp
simple distillation- molecules below 150C DEGREES but large difference in Bp
fractional distillation- molecules small difference in Bp and below 150C degrees
-
TLC- .6 relative retardation vs .7 relative retardation means .7 was performed at higher temp cuz it moved farther
-
highest peak in reaction profile = slow step
equilibrium constant and rate constant change with temperature
-
monosustituent alkene- kinetic product
disubstituent alkene- thermodynamic product
low temp- favors kinetic product when both reaction irreversible
-
exothermic- activation energy of reverse greater than activation energy of forward
-
specific rotation = observed rotation / c x l
1dm = 10cm
-
2 mol A <-----> 1 mol B
what change in pressure gets you to B?
increase pressure
-
low Kp = reverse reaction heavily favored
homogeneous mixture- all gases or all aqueous in reaction
-
ice less dense than water so to get ice to melt in closed container you increase the pressure because increase in pressure moves things to more dense
-
Keq and deltaG inversely related
-
increase temp and pOH lower (OH- greater)
-
-
products favored = keq > 1
reactants favored = keq <1
products favored = deltaG -
reactants favored = deltaG +
changing temp changes equilibrium constant
-
more solutes lower vapor pressure and lower the triple point on phase diagram
-
work done by climber - mgh
-
cooling rate = heat loss/ per unit time
deltaQ / deltaT
-
ion product smaller than solubility product = more of it dissolves
-
to lower temperature without freezing to occur you increase amount of solutes to decrease freezing point
At the freezing point of any solution the rates of melting and freezing are exactly balanced, allowing both phases to coexist in a thermodynamically stable state. The introduction of a solute reduces the activity of the liquid phase solvent, thereby reducing the rate of freezing.
You can think of this reduction in activity as solute molecules "getting in the way" of solvent molecules from attaining the correct alignment for freezing at the surface. On the other hand, the rate of melting is unaffected by the presence of solute because this is simply the rate of liberation from the frozen surface into the liquid phase.
In the presence of solute, it is necessary to lower the temperature to slow down the rate of melting so that it once again matches the rate of freezing. This is why the freezing point is lowered, or depressed, by the presence of solute in the liquid phase.
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