mcat science 6

which two molecules have a OH group on 2` carbon?

anterograde vesicle traffic pathway

retrograde vesicle traffic pathway (what it used for?)

a mutation can occur in an exon or intron and still produce same protein. why for each?

length of sarcomere is from one ____ to the next ____

and includes areas of overlapping ____ and ____ filaments

matching

1. high blood pressure from increased sodium reabsorption and muscle weakness from decreased potassium

2. high blood pressure from vasoconstriction, elevated blood glucose from insulin resistance, and weight gain

3. increased heart rate, heat intolerance, and weight loss

4. increased blood pressure from vasoconstriction, elevated blood glucose from glycogenolysis, and weight loss

- excess catacholamine release
- elevated cortisol levels
- hyperthyroidism
- hyperaldosteronism

________ metabolizes chylomicrons and VLDLs breaking down _______

______ is a type of organism with a hollow body cavity

increased rate of enzyme activity (or increased turnover) is a signal of increased Vmax or increased Kcat which are measures of upper limit of fully saturated enzyme to catalyze reaction

crine

- long distance blood
- nearby
- same
- next to

glycosidic bonds between sugars form ______ functional group

archaea and eukaryoyes use histones to wrap around DNA but only ____ use alternative source of energy such as N and S

glucagon - protein and fat catabolism so by products enter metabolic pathway to produce ATP

epithelial tissue

- network of tight junctions that prevent many molecules from passing through the tissue

- polarity which allows them to provide different functions at different areas of tissue

- form layers to fortify tissues exposed to physical stress

which allows heat or mass flow

open system
closed system
adiabatic
isolated

______ - fertilization occurs here
______ - Fetal development 
______- site of oocyte release during ovulation
______ - site where sperm are deposited during intercourse
______ - endocrine gland that produce estrogen and progesterone

aldosterone- slat resorption in ______

monoester of glycerol would be a diol

the larger electronegativity difference, the ______ the bond

adenine - base

adenosine - nucleoside when ribofuranose attached via glycosidic linkage

adenosine monophosphate - nucleotide when attached to phosphate

tautoermization results in consitiuttional isomers because they are different molecules due to alpha hydrogen and double bond movement in ketone enol tautomerization

expressivity - manifestation of phenotype if genotype the same

penetrance - proportion of population expressing phenotype

growth hormone stimulates break down of fatty acids

5` CCTTAAGG 3`

This sequence would be a good sequence for endonuclease activity cuz 5`to 3 ` sequence of one strand is complimentary to 5` to 3` of anti-parallel

incoming amino-acyl t-RNA complexes load into the ____ site

the final amino acid is added to a new protein at the _____ end

in mitochondria proton motive force is due to proton concentration gradient and voltage gradient as protons move to less positive charged matrix down its voltage gradient

fats are more reduced than carbs so during fasting when body uses up carbs and switches to fat for energy more oxygen is being consumed so respiratory quotient (co2 eliminated / o2 consumed) is lower

hydrostatic pressure vs oncotic pressure

_____ pushes fluid into interstitium from bloodstream

_____ pushes fluid from interstitium to bloodstream

losing large amounts of protein in urine is due to decrease in ______

ions flow ____ electrical gradient when they move toward opposite charge

ions flow ____ electrical gradient when they move towards same charge

ex. sodium entering a cell whose resting membrane potential is -70mV with sodium being positively charged its moving ____ its electrical gradient

protein anabolism vs catabolism in muscle tissue

insulin
cortisol
growth hormone
testosterone

D-Carbohydrates - the chiral center farthest from the carbonyl carbon determines its designation as D

during muscle contraction calcium binds to _____ unwinding _____ exposing myosin binding sites on ______

microfilaments are composed of _____

intermediate filaments are composed of _____

decrease salivation

decrease gastric emptying

decrease exocrine glad secretion

cell wall of plants and bacteria contain more carbs than human cells but less fluid and less phispholipids

_____ cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

co2 ethanol and lactate are products of

optimal pH and temp for human enzymes

prokaryotes lack mitochondria so their electron transport chain is located in the _____

nucleotide excision repair - removes large patches of DNA that result in helix distortion mutations like with UV light thymine dimers

base excision repair repairs bases that result in NON helix distortion mutations

proofreading is conducted by DNA pol during replication and mismatch repair corrects improper pairing of bases not caught during proofreading

steroid hormone can cross plasma membrane so it can bind intracellularlly in the cytoplasm

peptide hormones are polar so they bind on extracellular receptor

increased 2 3 bisphosphoglycerate a side product of glycolysis indicates to rbc that its near tissue with high metabolic demand and it binds to hemoglobin and promotes increase of additional oxygen to tissues that need it the most. this decreases hemoglobin aiffinity for oxygen and causes a right shift

decrease pH (increase H+) also cause right shift decrease in hemoglobin affinity for oxygen because protons bind to hemoglobin

red muscle fiber - more myoglobin (red color)

white muscle fiber - faster twitch but fatigue easier

both generate pyruvate or lactic acid and both utilize aerobeic and anaerobic respiration

SA Node -> atria contract -->  _____  -->ventricles contract --> bundle of his --- > purkinje fibers

fatty acid synthesis:

1. CO2, Acetyl-CoA, NADPH, are required for fatty acid synthesis 

2. Acetyl-CoA is derived from citrate, and citrate shuttle allows citrate to enter cytoplasm from mitochondria. 

3. Biotin is needed for fatty acid synthesis because it is a co-factor for acetyl-coA carboxylase which is required for fatty acid synthesis 

4. Insulin activates fatty acid synthase

Rate limiting enzyme for fatty acid oxidation

SDS makes sure proteins are separated due to size alone and make protein charge irrelevant

AMP is a signal to increase rate of catabolic or anabolic processes?

The type of cell structure likely found in ependymal cells is ______

ependymal cells line ventricles of the brain and produce ______

the ____ is functionally replaced by the placenta after the first trimester

_____ is produced by the implanted zygote in order to maintain the corpus luteum during the first trimester of pregnancy

follicular rupture occurs during ovulation which is stimulated by elevated gonadotropins which are secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to GnRH 

the corpus luteum produces ____ to support developing embryo

hCG maintains corpus luteum and corpus luteum secretes progesterone to maintain embryo

high Km = low affinity for substrate

explains by GLUT2 for liver has high Km compared to other GLUTS cuz other GLUT have higher glucose demands like GLUT 1 for ___ and ____

Occur primarily in cytoplasm (two)

Occur primarily in mitochondria (two)

Occur split between cytoplasm and mitochondria (two)

- synthesis of fatty acids
- B-Oxidation of fatty acids
- Urea cycle
- Citric acid cycle
- Pentose phosphate pathway
- Gluconeogenesis

first day of starvation fats are used for energy then after a few days its proteins cuz proteins are needed for functioning

peripheral nervous system:

ANS - Acetylcholine + _______

SNS - Acetylcholine

Raoults law:

Negative deviation: 
Attraction-
A + B > AA or BB

so less pressure is being exerted and more attraction is happening. Molecules of A and B escape less easy into vapor phase and the partial pressure of A and B and total vapor pressure are more negative.
______________________________

Positive deviation: 
Attraction-
A + B < AA or BB

so more pressure is being exerted and less attraction is happening. Molecules of A and B escape more easy into vapor phase and the partial pressure of A and B and total vapor pressure are more positive.

sort in order of strength

dispersion forces (van der wall)

hydrogen bond

dipole dipole (van der wall )

axial = alpha

bonds - same stereochemistry = beta
bonds - different stereochemistry = alpha

for glycosydic linkage

Antigen / antibody binding forces (list 5)

more acidic = better electrophile cuz more positive charge 

electron withdrawing = better electrophile

more basic and electron donating = nucleophile (increase electron density)

Enzymes sucrase, dipeptidase, and maltase are secreted by the ______ and break down small trimers and dimers into monomers.

These are called ______ enzymes

to be an effective buffer an acid must be a weak acid and weak acids are associated with Ka values _____

strong acids Ka greater than  1

weak acids Ka less than 1

_____ decrease insulin secretion, decrease glucagon secretion , decrease growth hormone secretion , decrease gastric emptying, supress GI motility and release of GI hormones and is secretes by the ______ and _______

Ketohexose cyclization to pyranose (6 carbon) form by C2 (since its keto) and OH on C6 carbon

Aldohexose cyclization to furanose ( 5 carbon) form by C1 (sinces its aldehyde) and OH on C5 carbon

aldehyde = C1
Ketone = C2
Pyranose = C6
Furanose = C5

fructose is a ketohexose

peptide hormones - fast onset/ short lived / travel far / bind extracellularly / don't need carrier protein and travel freely in bloodstream

steroid hormones - delayed onset / long lived  / bind intracellularly / need carrier protein to travel in bloodstream

G = -RTLnKeq

Keq > 1 = LnKeq > 0  (G = - = spon)
Keq < 1 = LnKeq < 0  (G = + = Nonspon)

Normality = M x (# of H+ or OH- ions)

So diprotic like sulfuric acid H2SO4 

Molarity of 1N sulfuric acid:
N = M x 2
1 = 1/2 x 2

M = 1/2
-----------------------------

normality of 1M sulfuric acid
N = M x 2
2 = 1 x 2

N = 2

current ampheres units is C/s

to convert to moles of e- per second use faraday constant of 10^5 C/ mol e-

what point on titration curve corresponds to for diprotic acid optimal buffering capacity for the system?

no liquid or solid in equilibrium expression just (g) and (aq)

amount of peaks on HNMR is equal to amount of different hydrogens

P = IV = V^2/R

W = 1 J/ s

unhybridized p orbitals overlap with p orbitals of adjacent atoms to form pi bonds so an atom with 2 unhyb p orbitals contain 2 pi bonds

closer c-h bonds or smaller bond angle means greater p character

double bonds will give something larger bond angle than single bonds or sp3 molecules

torque is the cross product of 2 vectors while work is the dot product of 2 vectors

cross product is the multiplication of 2 vectors and the sin of angle between 2 vectors yielding a vector

dot product is the multiplication of 2 vectors by cosine of angle between the 2 vectors yielding a scalar

waxes are esters formed from fatty acids (carboxylic acid with a bunch of CH bonds) and alcohols

polar covalent bond = electrons shared unequally / different electronegativities

coordinate covalent bond = when both e- in bond are contributed by one atom like what would happen with NH3 both e- in bond would be contri but N

terpene named by number of isoprene units

isoprene unit = C5H8

terpene by number of isoprene units

1- hemiterpene
2 - monoterpene
3- sesquiterpene
4 - diterpene
5- sesterterpene
6 - triterpene
8- tetraterpene

leptin = satiety and inhibits orexin

orexin = increase appetite 

in obese people there is an increase in leptin levels bcuz increase fat (adipose secrete leptin) but many obese individuals exhibit leptin insensitivity so they can't suppress appetite

air flow- decrease radius = increase resistance so bronchioles have greater resistance than trachaea

flat bones of skull form by _____

G (free energy ) doesn't change if enzyme is added only lower activation energy and increase rate of reaction

LiAlH4 > H2O + Catalytic acid > NaBH4 as reducing agents and only NaBH4 can reduce an

when substrate concentration much higher than Km 

- nearly all active sites are occupied by substrate and enzyme is saturated

- the enzyme is operating at Vmax

- the reaction velocity is limited by Kcat

amino peptidase secreted by _____

carboxypeptidase, trypsin , chymotrypsin secreted by _____

all are protein catabolic

down stroke or repolarization is caused by permeability of _____

exothermic: decreasing temp increase products which _____ Keq

Water reacts with ketones to form diols

LiAlH4 reacts with ketones to form alcohols

Water reacts with 1 ketone and LiAlH4 reacts with 1 ketone. Which products will have the higher boiling point?

Protein PI is pH where it is neutral so if PI is 5.4 and put in pH 5.4 it will not move.

metals linked to uncharged covalently linked non-metals are _____ bonds

Genes NOT linked have recombination frequency close to 50%

Genes that ARE linked have recombination frequency close to zero

respect for ____ is that researchers cant go into experiment knowing one treatment is better than the other

respect for persons is honesty between researcher and participant and includes informed consent (counseled on procedure risk benefits and goal)

Increasing LCAT (Lecithin Cholesterol acyltransferase) will increase HDL efficiency in moving cholesterol from blood vessels to tissues lowing blood cholesterol

ionization energy - amount of energy needed to free and e- from an atom so would be good to measure energy of atom becoming more positively charged

electron affinity is the amount of energy released by an atom when it becomes negatively charged

le chantlie

decrease volume of container shifts equilibrium to less moles of gas

so constricting blood vessels (decreasing area) would shift to less moles of gas

Voltage drop across resistor while capacitor is charging = steady drop in current so steady drop in voltage

V = IR

V = IR 

P = IV = V^2R

triglycerides are hydrophobic and glycogen is hydrophilic so glycogen requires large amounts of water for caloric glycogen storage which would lead to increased body mass so the body stores the bulk of its calories as triglycerides over glycogen

more oxygen = higher priority 

carboxlyilc acid > alcohol > alkyne

a tertiary amine cant undergo nucleophilic acyl substitution cuz no hydrogen avialable to kick off

PCC - Oxidizing agent

Primary alcohol to aldehyde
Secondary alcohol to ketone

Jones oxidation: H2SO4, CrO3, Acetone

Sodium Dichromate: Na2Cr2O7, H2SO4

Primary alcohol --- > Carboxylic acid
Secondary alcohol --- > Ketone

high performance liquid chromatography helps distinguish using differences in charge/polarity

commonly used for sickle-cell anemia

high levels of NADH and ATP ____ glycolysis and ____ gluconeogenesis

_______ is the predominant neurotransmitter used in the somatic nervous system

During implantation of embryo trophoblasts form chorionic villi which penetrates endometrium of uterus. The chorionic villi develop into the _______

Tropic hormones are released by pituitary to stimulate secretion of hormones and growth (hypertrophy/plasia) of endocrine glands so they are derived from ______ precursors and bind to hypothalamus for negative feedback

______ is the rate limiting enzyme of the mevalonate pathway required for cholesterol synthesis

Silica gel- least polar elutes first cuz polar interact with silica gel and move slow

which will elute first second and third

cholesterol
a-linolate
phosphotidylcholine

external urethral sphincter under ____ control and composed of _____ muscle and is _____ary

the rest of the urinary system is under _____ control and is ______ary

if inner mitochondrial membrane permeability increases what happens to ATP production and oxygen consumption

neural crest cells are formed from which embryonic germ layer?