A&P I test 1

the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another

• superficial anatomy
• study of internal structures as they relate to the overlaying skin
• study of general form of body's surface

• all structures in one part of the body
• anatomical organization of specific area of body
• ex head, trunk, neck

study of relationships of the body's struction

examins cross section of tissue or organ

gross anatomy of the body studied by system

ex skel, cardio, muscular systems

include many subspecialties important in clinical practice

ex pathological, radiographic, surgical

traces structural changes throughout life

study the changes in form that takes place between conception and adulthood

study of developmental changes of the body before birth

• CYTOLOGY- study of internal structior of cell
• HISTOLOGY- study of tissues

• study of function/working of the human body
• the study of the function of the body's structural machinery

• study of the function of cells
• looks at the chemistry of the cell

study of structural changes caused by disease

study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as: Xray, MRI, CT scan

study of anatomical structures at a sub-cellular level

• 1 electrical currents
• 2 blood pressure
• 3 the way muscle uses bone for movement

smalles stable unit of matter

• a) function always reflects structure
• b) what a structure can do depends on its specific form

• forms the external body covering
• -composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair and nails
• -protects deep tissues from injury 
• -synthesizes vitamin D

• -composed of bone, cartilage, ligaments, joints
• -protects and supports body organs
• -provides the framework for muscles
• -site of blood cell formation
• -stores minerals
• -spinal, pelvic, cranial, and throasic cavities are prtected by bones but not the abdominal cavity

• -composed of muscles and tendons
• -allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
• -maintains posture
• -produces heat

• -composed of the heart,& blood vessels
• -the heart pumps blood
• -the blood vessels transport blood throughout the body

• composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes and lympatic vessels
• -picks up fluid leaks from blood vessels and returns it to blood
• -disposes of debris in the lymphatic streams
• -houses white blood cells invloved with immunity

• -composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
• -keeps blood supplied with oxygen and romes carbon monoxide

• composed of oral cavity , esoph, stomch, sm intestine,lretum, anus
• -breaks down food into absorbable units that ener blood 
• eliminated indigestible foodstuff as feces

• made of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
• eliminates nirtogenous wastes from the body and metabolic wastes
• regulates water, electrolytes an pH balance

• made of prostated, penis, testes, scrotum , ductus deferens
• testes produce sperm & male hormone
• ducts and glands delliver sperm to female repro tract

• made of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
• ovaries produce eggs & female sex hormones
• remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus
• mammary glands produce milk

urinary digestive and respiratory systems

digestive & respiratory

nutrients and blood

ability to sense changes in the env and respond to them

breakdown of ingestion foodstuff

all the chmical reations that occur in the body

• accomplished by plasma membranes
• by the cell membrane

• biosynthesis
• A+ B => AB

takes energy to creat a chemical bonds

• degredation
• ATP => ADP  produces energy

are specific proteins

locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis) & contractility

original cell divides and produces 2 identical daughter cells

sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person => zygote

increase in size of a body part or of the organism

metabolic reation

energy and cell building

non sex cells

necessary for chemical reations to occur at life-sustaining rates

37^o celcius

required for proper breathing and gas exchange in lungs

ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever changing outside world

• chemical,
• thermal,
• neural

• 1)receptors
• 2) control center
• 3) effector provides means to respon to stimuli

monitor the env and responds to change (stimuli)

determines the set point at which the variable is maintained

provides the means to respond to stimuli

output shuts off the original stimulus

output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

overwhelming the usual negative feedback mechanisms allows destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over

toward and away from the head, respectively

toward the front ane back of the body

toward and away from the body surface

divides body into L & R

sagital plane that lies on the midline

divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

divides the body into superior and inferior parts

cuts made diagonally

humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy

• nerves /blood vessels may  be somewhat out of place
• small muscles may be missing

- protocts the nervous system

divided into cranial and vertebral cavity

w/in the skull; encases the brain

• runs w/in the vertebral column 
• encases the spinal cord

• houses the internal organs
• divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic

• pleural cavities
• mediastium
• pericardial cavity

house the lungs

• contains the pericardial cavity
• surrounds the remaining thoracic organs

• aabdominal cavity
• pelvic cavity

contains the stomach intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs

• lies w/in the pelvis 
• contains the bladder, reproductive organs & rectum

• part of the ventral cavity
• lines internal body walls

• part of ventral body cavity
• covers the internal organs

• part of ventral cavity
• separates the seosae

contains bones (ossicles) transmit sound vibrations

• R hypochondriac region
• R lumbar region
• R iliac region
• Epigastric regioin
• umbilical
• hypogastric region
• L hypochondriac
• L lumbar region
• L iliac region

• R upper
• L upper
• R lower
• L lower

anyting that has mass and takes up space

has stem cells that creat blood cells

• connect muscles to bone
• withstand tension

• no granuals
• microphages and lymphocytes

the capacity to do work

• kinetic
• potential

stored in bonds of chemical substances

chemiacal reation that breaks a molecule into smaller framents

• catabolism
• degradation
• hydrolysis
• oxidation
• exergonic
• exothermic

results from the movement of charged particles or ions across the cell membrane

directly involved in moving matter

• energy traveling in waves
• (UV, Xray, visible light, etc.)

unique substances that can't be broken down my ordinary chemical means

one or two letter chemical shorthand for each elemnt

pertain to the way atoms interact with one another

• 65% body wt
• 8 p 8e 8n

• 6p 6e 6n
• 18.6% total body wt

• 1p 1e
• 9.7 % total body wt

7p 7e 7n

3.2% total body wt

96%

3.9%

• no charge 
• mass of one atomic mass unit (amu) or dalton (d)

• positive charge
• mass of 1 amu or d

• have a negative charge
•  1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)

electorons move around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits

regions around the nucleus in which electrons are most likely found

equal to number of protons

to left as subscrip

equal to the number of protons and neutrons

to left as suprascript

atoms of the same element with differant number of neutrons

average of the mass numbers of all isotopes

atoms that undergo spontaneous decay (radioactivity)

are unstable and give off radiation 

a specific quantity w/ a weight in gram equal to the element's atomic wt

is equal to its atomic or molecular weight in grams

two or more atoms held together by chemical bond

towo or more differant kinds of atoms chemically bonded together

two or more components physically intermixed

homogeneous mixturess of components

substance present in greatest amount

substance(s) present in smaller amount

• percent or parts per 100 parts
• molarity or moles per liter (M)

heterogeneous mixtures whose solutes do not settle out

heterogenous mixtures with visible solutes that tend to settle out

• a) no chemical bonding takes place in mixtures
• b) most mixtures can be separated by physical means
• c) mixtures can be hetero or homo geneous

• all compunds are homogeneous
• compounds have ionic & covalent bonds

using the electrons in the outermost energy level

outermost energy level containing chemically active electrons

• except for the first shell which is full with 2 
• valence shells fill with 8 electrons

have their outermost energy shell fully occupied by electrons

no chemical bond

do not have their outermost energy shell fully occupied

try to form chemical bonds

• ionic
• covalent
• hydrogen

• charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of electrons
• have unequal # of protons and electorns

ions that gained one or more electrons

- charge

ions that lost one or more electrons

+ charge

form between atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons

example NaCl (sodium chloride)

crystals instead of individual molecules

formed by sharing 2 or more electrons

molecules

electrons are shared equally between atoms

O₂ H₂ CH₂

unequal sharing of electrons

atoms with 6 or 7 valence shell electrons

atoms with on or two valence shell electrons

too weak to bind atoms together

• important as intramolecular bonds
•  - given the molecule a 3D shape

• in dipoles (such as water)
•    - and keep together the DNA double stranded molecule between nitrogen bases

surface tension in water

• occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken
• written in symbolic form using chemical equations

• number and type of reacting substances and products produced
• relative amounts of reactants and products

H+H -> H₂ (gas)

synthesis reactions which always involve bond formation

gain energy

_{(chemical reaction)}

• anabolism
• biosynthesis
• condensation
• dehydration
• reduction
• endergonic
• endothermic

molecules are broken down into smaller molecules

loss of energy or produce energy to the outside

• catabolism
• degradation
• hydrolysis
• oxidation
• exergonic
• exothermic

• bonds are made and broken
• (reversible reactions)

reactants losing electrons

hydrogens are electron donors and are oxidized

loss of energy

reactants taking up electrons

hyrogens are electron acceptors and become reduced

gain energy

• temperature
• particle size
• concentration
• catalysts
• enzymes

higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reations

increase the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed

• contain carbone
• are covalently bonded
• are often large

do not containe carbon


examples- water, salts, many acids & bases

• CO-carbon monoxide
• CO₂-carbon _dioxide
• CO_3-biocarbonate
• HCO_3-carbonate
• H₂CO₃-carbonic acid

• *high heat capacity- _{absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing temp}
• *high heat vaporization- _{changing from liquid to gas requires large amounts of heat}
• *polar solvent proporties- _{dissolvies ionic substances, forms hydration layers around large charged molecules, serves as body's major transport medium}
• *Reactivity __{important part of hydrolysis & dehydration layers around large charged molecules}
• *cushioning -_{resilient cushion around certain body parts} 

• inorganic compounds
• contain cations other than H⁺ and anioins other than OH^- 
• are electrolytes -conduct electrical currants

hydroxide

• release H^₊ 
• proton donors
• HCL--> H⁺ +Cl^-

• realease OH^-
• are proton acceptors
• NaOH --> Na⁺+OH^-

• acidic solutions- higher H⁺ => lower pH (
• alkaline solutions- lower H⁺ concentrations ==>higher pH
• neutral solutions- equal H⁺ and OH^-

Acidic --pH 0-6.99  _{(lower pH)}

Basic --pH 7.01-14  _{(higher pH)}

• bood  7.9 _{(weak base)}
• stomach --around 1
• bladder --around  8

H⁺

OH^-

• systems that resist abrup and large swings in pH
• carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

• a buffer
• chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid and bicarbonate 
•   -resists pH changes in the blood
• Cabonic acid dissociates, reversibly releases bicarbonate ions and proton

• contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• are sugars and sacharides
• major function to supply a source of cellular food

usually end in -ose

• monsaccharides (simple sugars)
•   - gluc, fruct, galact, deoxyrib,and ribose
• disacharides (double sugars)
•   -sucrose _glu-fructose, lactose _glu-galactos, maltose _glu-glu
• polysccharide (polymers)
•   -glycogen _{many glucose together}

C, H, O but proportions of O is less than in carbs

• neutral fats (triglycerides)
• phospholipids
• steroids
• eicosanoids

• single bonds
• solid

• one or more double bonds
• liquid
• come from plants or fish

modified triglycerides with 2 fatty acid groups and 1 phosphate group

chief component of cell membrane

• flat molecules w/ 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings
• closed molecules

cholesterol, bile, vitamin D, sex hormones, adrenal cortical hormones

20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes

prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes

transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream

• -building blocks of proteins
• -containing an amino group and a carboxyl group
• carboxyl groups COOH

• peptide bond
• a lot of amino acids together

macromolecules composed of combo of 20 types of amino acid bound together with peptide bonds

• primar --amino acid sequence
• secondary --alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
• tertiary -- superimosed folding of secondary structures (get together by hydrogen bonds)
• quaternary- polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner

• extended and strand-like proteins
• ex.- keratin, elastin, collagen, certain contractile fibers

• compact, spherical proteins w/ tertiary and quaternary structures
• ex.-antibodies, hormones & enzymes

reversible unfolding of proteins due to drops in pH and/or increased temp

irreversible denatured proteins cannot refold and are formed by extreme pH or temp change

• help other proteins to achieve their functional 3D shape
• maintain folding integrity
• assist in translocation of protein across membranes
• promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured prteins
• makes sure other molecules & prteins are doing what they should

• chemically specific
• most are globular proteins that act as biological catalysis
• lower activation energy

an apoenzyme (protein) and a cofactor (usually an ion)

• enzyme binds w/ substrate
• product is formed at a lower activation energy
• product is released

• saccharides and proteins
• make cell membranes fuzzy, sticky and sugar rich

• lipids and proteins
• maintain cell membrane and travel in blood

proteins in the cell membrane to receive hormones or other chemical messengers

• poly nucleotides
• composed of C, O, H, N, P
• structural unit (nucleotide) composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, & phosphate group

• 1) adenine (A), 
• 2) guanine (g)
• 3 cytosine (C)
• 4)thymine (T)
• 5) uracil    (U)

• DNA
• RNA

• genes are coding DNA
• double stranded helical molecule found in nucleus of cell
• uses nitrogenous base thymine (T) instead of uracil (U)
• provides instructions for protein synthesis
• the sugar is deoxyribose

• before the cell divides 
• --ensuring genetic continuity

its time for apoptosis--cellular death

• single stranded
• found in both nucleus and cytoplasm of cell
• uses nitrogenous base U instead of T

sugar is ribose

adenine bins uracil & cytosine binds guanine w/ hydrogen bonds

• messenger (mRNA)
• transfer (tRNA)
• ribosomal (rRNA)

migrate to the nucleolus to form ribosomes that than go from nucleus to cytoplasm

had codons

anticodones that travel from nucleus to cytoplasm

• ribosomes
• mRNA
• tRNA
• amino acids w/ many enzymes

• source of immediatly usable energy for cell
• adenosine: adenine & ribose
• triphosphate 3 phosphate groups
• Adenine- contains RNA nucleotide w/ 3 phosphate groups