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Differentiation
=the process by which behaviors and physical structures become specialized
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Failure to thrive (FTT)
=a disorder of infancy and early childhood characterized by variable eating and inadequate gains in weight.
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Canalization
=the tendency to return to one's genetically determined patterns of growth
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Nerves
=bundles of axons from many neurons
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Neurons
= cells in the nervous system that transmit messages
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Dendrites
=rootlike parts of neurons that receive impulses from other neurons
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Axon
=a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons through branching structures called axon terminals.
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Neurotransmitter
=a chemical that transmits a neural impulse across a synapse from one neuron to another
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Myelin sheath
= a fatty, whitish substance that encases and insulates axons.
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Myelination
= the coating of axons with myelin.
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Multiple sclerosis
= a disorder in which hard fibrous tissue replaces myelin, impeding neural transmission.
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Medulla
= an area of the hindbrain involved in heartbeat and respiration.
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Cerebellum
=the part of the hindbrain involved in coordination and balance.
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Cerebrum
=the part of the brain responsible for learning, thought, memory, and language.
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Ulnar grasp
=grasping objects between fingers and the palm.
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Pincer grasp
=grasping objects between the fingers and the thumb.
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Locomotion
=movement from one place to another.
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Toddler
=a child who walks with short, uncertain steps.
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Perceptual constancy
=perceiving objects as maintaining their identity although sensations from them change as their positions change.
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Primary circular reactions
=the repetition of actions that first occurred by chance and that focus on the infant's own body.
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Habituation
=becoming used to a stimulus and therefore paying less attention to it.
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Secondary circular reactions
=the repetition of actions that produce and effect on the environment
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Tertiary circular reactions
=the purposeful adaptation of established schemes to new situations.
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Object permanence
=recognition that objects continue to exist when they are not in view
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Deferred imitation
=the imitation of people and events that occurred in the past.
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Visual recognition memory
=the kind of memory shown in an infant's ability to discriminate previously seen objects from novel objects
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Prelinguistic
=vocalizations made by the infant before the use of language.
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Cooing
=prelinguistic vowel like sounds that reflect feelings of positive excitement.
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Babbling
=the child's first vocalizations that reflect feelings of positive excitement.
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Echolalia
=the automatic repetition of sounds or words.
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Intonation
=the use of pitches of varying levels to communicate meaning.
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Receptive vocabulary
= the number of words one understands.
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Referential language style
=use of language primarily as a means for labeling objects.
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Expressive vocabulary
=the number of words one can use in the production of language.
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Expressive language style
=use of language primarily as a means for engaging in social interaction.
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Overextension
=use of words in situations in which their meanings become extended.
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Telegraphic speech
=type of speech in which only the essential words are used.
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Mean length of utterance
=the average number of morphemes used in an utterance.
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Morpheme
=the smallest unit of meaning in a language.
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Holophrase
=a single word that is used to express complex meaning.
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Syntax
=the rules in a language for placing words in order to form sentences.
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Models
=in learning theory, those whose behaviors are imitated by others.
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Extinction
=decrease in frequency of a response due to absence of reinforcement.
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Shaping
=gradual building of complex behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to the target behavior.
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Psycholinguistic theory
=the view that language learning involves an interaction between environmental influences and an inborn tendency to acquire language.
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Language acquisition device
=neural "prewiring" that eases the child's learning or grammar.
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Aphasia
=a disruption in the ability to understand or produce language.
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Surface structure
the superficial grammatical construction of a sentence.
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Deep structure
the underlying meaning of a sentence.
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Broca's aphasia
=an aphasia caused by damage to Broca's area and characterized by difficulty speaking.
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Wenicke's aphasia
an aphasia caused by damage to Wernicke's area and characterized by impaired comprehension of speech and difficulty producing the right word.
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Sensitive period
the period from about 18 months to puberty when the brain is especially capable of learning language.
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