DAT Prep

• Simple Reflex
• Complex Reflex
• Fixed-Action Pattern
• Behavior Cycles
• Environmental Rhythms

Automatic responses to simple stimuli and recognized as reliable behavioral response following a given environmental stimulus.  Controlled by the spinal cord to the receptor (afferent neuron) to the motor (efferent neuron).

Involves neural integration at a higher level of the brainstem or even the cerebrum.  Involves many neuron in a system termed the reticular activating system.  Response for sleep-wake transitions and behavioral motivation.

Complex, coordinated, innate behavioral responses to specific patterns of stimulation in the environment.  Stimulus that elicits the behavior is referred to as the releaser.  Unlikely to be modified by learning.

Daily cycles of behavior are called circadian rhythms.  These are typically daily cycles.

In many situations, patterns of behavior are established and maintained mainly by periodic environmental stimuli (Example is that of a response to traffic light signals)

If a stimulus is no longer regularly applied, the response tends to recover over time.

Involves the association of a normally autonomic or visceral response with an environmental stimulus.

Phenomenon that can be confused with true classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus is able to elicit the response even before conditioning and is not really a neutral stimulus.

Order of response having different probability of occurrence.

Specific time period during an animal's early development when it is physiologically able to develop specific behavioral pattern.

• 1 - Reproductive Display
• 2 - Agonistic Display
• 3 - Other Display - Dancing

Innate behavior that has evolved as a signal for communication between members of the same species.

Signals in preparation for mating

Function to reduce physical harm to the animal

Used to convey information concerning the quality and location of food source.

Relationship among members of the same species living as a contained social group.  Social hierarchy

• Releaser Pheromones
• Primer Pheromones

Trigger a REVERSIBLE behavior change in the recipient

Produce long-term behavioral and physiological alteration in receiving animals

• Subatomic Particles
• Atom
• Molecules
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ System
• Organism
• Species
• Population
• Community
• Ecosystem
• Biosphere

• Water
• Temperature
• Sunlight - Photic and Aphotic Zones
• Oxygen Supply
• Substratum (Rock or Soil)

• Soil Acidity or pH
• Texture
• Minerals including Nitrates and Phosphates
• Humus - decaying plant and animal life

Defines the functional role of an organism in its ecosystem.  

It is distinct from the habitat.

• Organism eats
• where and how it obtains its food
• what climactic factors it can tolerate and which are optimal
• nature of its parasites and predators
• where and how it reproduces
• Competing species may rapidly evolve in a divergent direction under the strong selection pressure resulting from intense competition.

• Autotroph
• Heterotrophs
• Herbivores - Needs symbiotic Bacteria to digest.  Characteristically long digestive tracts.  More adept in defense
• Carnivores
• Omnivores

• Symbiosis 
• Commensalism (+/0)
• Mutualism (+/+)
• Parasitism (+/-)

• Endoparasites (Inside Body)
• Ectoparasites (outside body)

The more dangerous the parasite the less the chance it will survive

Include protists and fungi that decompose dead organism matter externally and absorb the nutrients.  Decomposers.

Decomposers may be considered scavengers.

• Members of the same species compete, but they must also cooperate.
• Competition is the chief disruptive force.

• Adaptation for maintaining internal osmolarity and conserving water.
• Saltwater Fish live in a hyper-osmotic environment which causes they to lose water and take in salt.
• Compensate by drinking water and active secretion of salt across their gills
• Fresh water fish live in hypo-osmotic environment which causes intake of excess water and excessive salt loss.  To correct they seldom drink water
• Insects excrete solid uric acid crystals
• Desert animals avoid desiccation (Drying up)

Fraction of energy derived from oxidation of carbs into high energy ATP.  Metabolism is closely tied to its body temp.

Cold-blooded

Warm blooded

Complex pathway involved in the transfer of energy through the living components of the ecosystem

Single Chain showing transfer of energy

Not linear but intricate collection of interconnected food chains.

• Producers - Auto/chemo- Trophs
• Primary Consumers - Herbivores
• Secondary Consumers - Carnivores
• Tertiary Consumers - Feed on secondary Consumers
• Decomposers - Break down organic matter

The least amount of energy is made available to the top of the pyramid.  Lost during the interaction of each level

• Nitrogen Cycle
• Carbon Cycle
• Phosphorous Cycle
• Water Cycle
• Oxygen Cycle

• Elemental Nitrogen is chemically inert and cannot be used by most organisms.  Lightening and nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legumes change the nitrogen to usable soluble nitrates
• Nitrates absorbed by plants used to synthesize nucleic acids and plant proteins
• Animals eat plants synthesis specific animal proteins
• Nitrogen locked up in waste and dead tissues released by the action of bacteria of decay which convert the proteins into ammonia (NH3)
• Two paths of ammonia --> Some is nitrified to nitrites by chemosynthetic bacteria and then usable nitrates by nitrifying bacteria.  The rest is denitrified meaning the ammonia is broken down to release free nitrogen which returns to the beginning of the cycle.

• Decay
• Nitrifying
• Denitrifying
• Nitrogen Fixing

• Carbon atoms from CO2 are bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms.  Use glucose to make starch, proteins, and fats
• Animals eat plants.  Organic compound used as fuel in respiration
• Metabolically produced CO2 is released into the air.  Remaining organic carbon remains locked within an organism until its death.

• Stable physical environment (Abiotic Factors) and stable biotic community
• Constant Energy source and a living system incorporating this energy into organic compounds
• Cycling of material between the living system and its environment

• Community Stage.  
• In an ecological succession is identified by a dominant species - one that exerts control over the other species that are present

• Changes in the environment making it more unfavorable for itself and more favorable for the community that is to succeed it.
• Climax community is permanent in the ecosystem unless the abiotic factors are drastically altered by climatic or geological upheavals.

• Desert Biome - Limited Flora and Fuana
• Grassland Biome - Low Rainfall, few birds and mammals
• Rainforest Biome - Epiphytes (plants growing on plants)
• Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome
• Temperate Coniferous Forest Biome
• Taiga Biome - Less rainfall than temperate forests, long cold winters, coniferous forests re inhabited by trees that do not lose there leaves, especially the spruce.
• Tundra Biome
• Polar Region

• Intertidal Zone - exposed to low tides and undergoes variations in temperature and periods of dryness.
• Neritic Zone - Region on the continental shelf that contains ocean with depths up to 600' and extends several hundred miles from the shores.  
• Pelagic Zone - Open seas and can be divided up into photic and aphotic
• Photic Zone - Sunlight layer of the open sea extending to a depth of 250-600 ft.  Contains plankton, nekton or fish, sharks and whales.  Diatom or alga is the chief autotroph
• Aphotic Zone - Region beneath the photic zone that receives no sunlight.  Benthos are primary organism which are crawling and sessile organisms.

• Different in Three Ways:
• Freshwater is hypotonic creating a diffusion gradient that results in the passage of water into the cell.  Mammals have homeostatic mechanisms to maintain balance.  
• In Rivers and streams, strong, swift currents exists and thus selection favored the survival of fish developed strong muscles and plants with root-like holdfasts
• Smaller freshwater biomes are affected by variations in climate and water.

Contains a sealed digestive sac.  Characterized by long stinging tentacles.  Jelly fish

Jointed exoskeletons.  More species of arthropods than any other.  Insects, arachnids, crustaceans

Radially symmetric animals, that contains water vascular systems, can regenerate parts, and moves via tube feet.  Examples are starfish, sea urchins

Similar functions but dissimilar embryologic origins.

• All living things are composed of cells
• The Cell is the most basic functional unit of life
• Chemical reactions of life take place inside the cell
• Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
• Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA and is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia

• Prokaryotic (before nucleus)
• Eukaryotic

• Small non polar, hydrophobic molecules such as: Oxygen
• Small polar molecules such as: Water
• Small charged particles are usually able to cross the membrane through protein channels
• Charged ions are larger molecules cross the membrane with assistance from carrier proteins.

• Controls activities of the cell including cell division
• Surrounded by nuclear Membrane
• Contains DNA which is complexed with structural proteins called histones to form chromosomes
• DNA winds around histones to make it more compact and these histones are involved in regulation of gene transcription
• rRNA synthesis occurs

• Site where protein production 
• Protein synthesized by the nucleolus
• Free ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
• Bound ribosomes line the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum

• Network of membrane-enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell, particularly those materials destined to be secreted by the cell.
• Smooth ER - Does not contain ribosomes and is not involved with protein synthesis but metabolism and production of lipids
• Rough ER - Contains ribosomes and is important in production of proteins

• Packages
• Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER and then modifies them via processes such as glycoslation 
• Repackages them into vesicles and distributes them to the cell surface for exocytosis

• Sites of aerobic respiration within the cell and hence the suppliers of energy especially in the form of ATP.  
• Composed of a phospholipid bilayer

• Where most of the cells metabolic activity occurs
• Cellular fluid contained within the cell membrane
• Place where all organelles are contained
• Transport within the cytoplasm occurs by cyclists (Streaming movement within the cell)

• membrane-bound sacs involved in transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by the cell.
• Vacuoles are larger than vesicles and more likely to be found in plants than animals

• Composed of microtubules and involved in spindle organization during cell division
• Not bound by membrane
• Usually located at the centrosome
• Regulate the progression of the cell cycle
• Plant cells do not contain

• Membrane-bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion.
• Autolysis - process of self-destruction by rupturing the membrane

• Supports the cell, maintains its shape, and aids in cell motility.  
• Composed of: Microfilaments, Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments

• Hollow rods made up of polymerized tubular that radiate throughout the cell and provide it with support.
• Framework for organelle movement within the cell
• Centrioles which direct cell division are composed of microtubles
• Cilia and flagella are specialized arrangements of microtubules

• Solid rods of actin
• important in cell movement as well as support
• Move materials across the plasma membrane

• Simple Diffusion - Osmosis concentration gradients
• Facilitated Diffusion - Passive Transport, net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradients no energy required
• Active Transport - Movement against concentration gradient.  Requires energy.  Symporters move two or more ions in same directions.  Antiporters exchange one for one.  Pumps energy dependent carries (ATP)
• Endocytosis - ingestion of particles (pinocytosis - small particles) (phagocytosis - large particles)
• Exocytosis - Movement of vesicles within the cell fuses with the cell membrane and releases a large volume of contents to the outside.

Kinetic energy spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.

The circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell transports molecules

The ER forms a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm and provides a direct continuous passageway from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane

• Cells are in close or direct contact with the external environment
• Larger more complex animals diffusion is important for the transport of materials between cells and the interstitial fluid that bathes the cells

• Cells too far from the external environment to transport materials by diffusion
• Needs vessels to transport fluid, pump.

• G1 (Initiates interphase active growth),
• S (DNA synthesis),
• G2 (Prepares to divide),
• last phase is the M phase which is when mitosis or meiosis occurs.

• Prophase - Condense and the centriole pairs separate and move toward the opposite poles of the cell.  Spindle apparatus forms between them and the nuclear membrane dissolves allowing spindle fibers to interact with the chromosomes.
• Metaphase - Centriole pairs are now at opposite poles.  Fibers of spindle apparatus attach to each chromatid at its corresponding kinetochore.  Spindle fibers align the chromosomes at the center forming the metaphase plate.
• Anaphase - Centromeres split so each chromatid has its own distinct centromere.  Allows sister chromatids to separate.  Sister Chromatids are pulled toward the opposite poles shortening of the spindle fibers.
• Telophase - Spindle apparatus disappears.  Nuclear membrane forms around each set of newly formed chromosomes.  Chromosomes uncoil resuming their interphase form.
• Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells, each with a complete nucleus and its own set of organelles.  Animal cells a cleavage furrow forms, and cell membrane indents along the equator of the cell, pinching through the cell.  In a plant cell plate forms.

• Interphase - Replication resulting in 2N number of sister chromatids
• First Meiotic Division - Division of two intermediate daughter cells with N chromosomes and sister chromatids
• Prophase I - Chromatin condenses, spindle apparatus forms, and the nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear.  Homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis.  At this stage there are four chromatids and often called a tetrad.  Crossing over occurs here (break at corresponding pieces and exchange equivalent pieces of DNA - this must be of with only homologous and not sister chromatids).  Recombination results in increased genetic diversity within a species.  
• Metaphase I - Tetrads align at equatorial plane and each pair attaches to a separate spindle fiber at the kinetochore
• Anaphase I - Homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.  This is called disjunction and accounts for fundamental Mendelian Law.  During disjunction each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell.  Nondisjunction occurs when cells do not separate appropriately during meiosis.  
• Telophase I:  Nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus.  Sister chromatids joined at the centromere.  
• Second Meiotic Division - Similar to meiosis I but not preceded by chromosomal replication.

• Law of Segregation - Gametes segregate so only one allele is carried away
• Law of Independent Assortment - Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.
• Law of Dominance - Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.

Worms - Kingdom Animalia

• Random Mating
• No Natural Selection
• No Migration or Emigration
• Large Population
• No Mutations

• (p + q)ⁿ = 1
• p + q = 1
• P² + 2pq + q² = 1

2pq = heterozygote

Four chromosomes present, per cell.  This is important in Hardy-Weinberg because you raise it to the 4th power not 2nd.

Some species will share similar traits not because they have a common ancestor from which that trait is derived, but rather because they have evolved under separate conditions.  These are analogous traits.

• -Ectoderm - "Attracto" term - things that attract people to one another.  I.e. eyes, skin, nails, hair, lens of eye, anal canal, CNS and PNS.
• -Mesoderm - "Means" oderm.  Means of getting around.  Circulatory system, muscle, gonads, respiratory system, etc. 
• -Endoderm - Digestive and respiratory tract.

It is a failure of some homologous pairs of chromosomes to separate following meiotic synapsis.  Results in an extra chromosome or a missing chromosome for a given pair.  It can result in extra, fewer chromosomes, miscarriage of the fetus, or congenital diseases such as down's syndrom.  Will not cause breakage near the centromere.