-
14th century
conversion of Malays to Islam begins
-
1826
- Formation of Colony of Straits Settlements
- British settlements of Malacca, Penang, Singapore combine
- extending of British influence
- Establishment of protectorates over Malay sultanates of peninsula
-
1895
- Formation of Federated Malay States
- 4 malay states combine
-
1934
- CPM Constitution
- Aims: overthrowing british colonialism, abolishing malay feudalism, setting up a malayan people's republic
-
1942 - 1945
- Japanese Occupation
- showed western powers were not infallible
-
1947
- independence of india and pakistan
- symbol of independence
-
1930 - 1948
- CPM
- multi-ethnic in recruiting
-
1930
- formation of cpm under the authority of Moscow-directed communist international agent for Southeast asia Ho Chi Minh (also vietnamese communist leader)
- overrepresentation of chinese from beginning
-
December 1941
- before 1941 carried out acts of violence and terror (assassination of enemies like British officials, police informers, party dissidents, members of rival party, chinese nationalist party)
- december: recognized by british
- british support in mobilizing defence against japanese
- members trained as guerrillas
- nucleus of malayan people's anti-japanese
-
mpaja
- malayan people's anti-japanese army
- founded by british armed forces
- disbanded in 1945 upon british re-occupation
-
1945
- british re-occupation
- cpm maintained legal existence as political party
- involvement in public riots, workers' strikes, demonstrations due to food shortages
- conflict between cpm and british military administration (bma)
-
11 May 1946
- formation of UMNO (united malays national organisation)
- anti-malayan union campaign led to the formation
- largest malayan national party
- leader dato' onn bin jaafar
-
1946 - 1949
- civil war in china
- second phase
- between nationalists and communists
- china officially becomes a communist country in 1949
- stronger chinese influence in cpm
-
1947 - 1948
- constitutional crisis
- labour unrest escalates
- british government introduces political reforms
- malayan union's constitutional proposals for multi-ethnic populations are included
- plan aimed at merging malay states and british settlements of malacca and penang into unitary state governed by malays called malayan union
- equal citizenship to all ethnicities - fostering malayan identity
- transfer of nine malay rulers' sovereignty to british crown - reinforced colonial power and centralized form of government
- strong malay opposition - restoration of power to malay rulers and of special priveleges to malay
-
1 February 1948
- inauguration of federation of malaya
- replaces malayan union after negotiations with umno and malay rulers
- opposition of non-malays and small radical groups of malays
- structured as 'nascent malay national state'
- constitution: unified british-ruled malayan territories, didn't spell out basic human rights, didn't introduce democracy except to allow federal citizens right to hold office in administration, regarded as interim phase of tutelage in citezenship
-
1948
- cpm aligned with left-wing coalition of malay and non malay organisations AMCJA-PUTERA
- opposed terms of federation of malaya agreement
- counter-set of demands
- asked for self-government
- produced manifesto 'the people's constitution for malaya (1947)'
- AMCJA-PUTERA demanded introduction of nationality called Melayu, malay as national language, malay rulers as constitutional monarchs
- british government, malay rulers, umno rejected demands
- radicalization followed
-
june 1948
- breakdown of law and order
- Term means that authorities react to take back control
- CPM had been planning armed rising, but unprepared
- Caused by industrial unrest - climax was a series of murders of European planters and managers
- Murders blamed on communists, communist subversion and violence in labour organisations - CPM denied charges
-
1948 - 1960
Malayan Emergency
-
Malayan Emergency
- Government declared state of emergency on 18 June 1948
- UK feared CPM's power and influence
- CPM wished to decrease exploitation of workers in rubber and tin sectors - attractive to workers due to aims and policies, led to workers participation in strikes
- consequent disruption of british control and flow of income could occur
Response of British - authorities to communist insurgency was both military and political - possibility of independence
CPM stated emergency was a ploy - result of collusion between colonial state and british capitalists to suppress labour- restoration of law and order - establishment of authoritarian regime and official start to unofficial war
- counter-insurgency tactics began being employed
- cpm and amcja-putera forced underground - officially ceased to exist
- armed forces overwhelmed: barbed wire check-points, road-blocks, police in patrol cars checking and screening ops on large scale, identity card system to facilitate screenings
- isolation of communists
- population growth to 6 mill
- three phases: counter-terror (1948 - 1949), clear and hold (1950-1952), optimisation (1952-1960)
- shooting war - armed forces everywhere, many people checked daily
-
emergency state included
- -Laws restricting freedoms - freedom of speech, movement, publications etc. which remained in use after the Emergency
- --Emergency Regulations of 1948 which survived within Internal Security Act of 1960
- --Sedition Act (revised in
- 1969)
- --Societies Act (amended in 1981) under which all social organizations and political parties had to be registered
- -- Official Secrets Act (amended in 1986)
- --Essential (Security Case) Regulations (1975)
- -allowing detention without trial
- enforced censorship of info - anyone suspected of communist leaning/sympathy could be taken for interrogation
- -prohibition of public demonstrations or assembly
- particularly targetting communists and cpm with aim to defeat them
- measures defended as necessary
-
cpm and amcja-putera during initial phases
- chin peng - leader
- mass arrests of members
- call to revive mpaja - escape to jungles
- guerrillas of mostly chines, small numbers of indians and malays
- dissolving of malayan democratic union and malay nationalist party - amcja-putera affiliates
- open politics unattainable
-
insurgents aims at emergency start
- disrupt economy
- establish liberated areas
- overthrow of oppressive british colonialism
- achieve freedom and national independence
- subscribed to terms of people's constitution for malaya
-
counter-terror phase
- 1948 - 1949
- little intelligence
- area-sweeps, large-scale detentions, group punishment, rapid build-up of security forces
- reduced larger insurgent groups
- increased insurgent recruitment due to civilian alienation
-
clear and hold phase
- 1950 - 1952
- general briggs became director of operations in early 50s
- comprehensive plan called briggs plan
- executive committees combining police, military, special branch and administrative officers at local, state and national levels
- creation of new villages and transfer of chinese squatters into them
-
1950
- start of korean war
- increased demand for rubber and tin
- economy boom - payed for war
-
1951 (britain)
churchill returns as pm
-
1951 (malaya)
- peak of mnla
- communist party, 90% chinese
- malayan national liberation army
- about 8k members
- supported by min yuen (public mass movement) and armed work units
-
1951/1952
- britain considers transition/independence
- war too costly
- british realize they can only win with people's support (high cost, economic&social hardship, high casualty rate)
- wish to disengage with conflict - leave consequence of fight to an independent malaya
- expedited pace of self-government, elected non-communist government that would fight against insurgents
- successes against cpm
-
gradual independence
- integration of communal political parties up to 1957
- devolution of power
-
1952
peak of police and army
-
7 february 1952
- sir henry gurney, british high commissioner assassinated by communist insurgents
- military regime under general gerald templer
-
templer's malaya
- contempt for chinese community
- collective punishments of chinese in towns
- confining chinese in homes for 24 hours
- daily curfews
- emergency powers broadened - detention without trial, controls on food and movement, individual and group punishment
- cpm strategy turned political, less military conflict - october 1951 directive, infiltrating other parties with incognito communist members - formation of socialist parties with communist agents
-
1953 onwards
cpm flees to thai-malayan border
-
July 1955
- Templer departs
- criticism that malaya was an oligarchy and police state
- removed by british authorities and sent back to britain
-
july 1955
- first general elections
- candidates being voted for by population to form a parliament
-
first general elections
- multi-ethnic UMNO-MCA-MIC alliance party won 51 of 52 seats - represented 3 main races in malaya
- communities preferred communal party representation to safeguard communal interests
- move even more towards communalism trend
- anti-communist parties, conservative
-
federal government
- formed by UMNO-MCA-MIC alliance
- offered amnesty to communist insurgents
- negotiations with british government for full self-government and national independence
- discussion of amnesty terms between alliance government leader tunku abdul rahman and chin peng at baling in kedah state
-
attempt to repatriate chinese during emergency
- chinese government closed ports
- briggs plan - chinese squatters supplied insurgents with food, uk wanted to send them back to china but couldn't
- solution: new villages
- rapid urbanization with concentration of chinese in towns
- other races resettled too, transferred to working camps
- new villages and labour camps were fenced, malay settlements weren't
- new urban centres with chinese domination - political power of chinese in towns
- greater later tension between chinese and malays due to economic success
-
28 and 29 december 1955
- Baling talks
- meeting of alliance and communist leaders
- insurgents suffered losses f men and food shortage due to briggs plan
- cpm aims: asked for peace, seeking amnesty but not without honour, members would not be detained or screened, wanted to gain a foothold in independence talks with british government in london in feb 1956
- alliance didn't want strong opposition from cpm - no interest in reintegration of cpm in politics
- tunku abdul rahman rejected demands
- cpm proposed deal: cpm would stop hostilities and lay down arms if alliance would obtain control over intl security and defence from british government - accepted challenge, given publicity, intended to strengthen alliance government's bargaining position
- british government agreed to concede those powers and to demand for independence by 31 aug 1957 - wanted to end insurgency
- cpm didn't hold to deal - reason was the denial of a second meeting with rahman which was turned down
-
1957
- federation of malaya gains independence
- tunku abdul rahman is pm
- dominant position of malays still present - rights, privileges, special position
- malay as national language
- rulers became constitutional monarchs
- citizenship given to qualified non-malays who swore loyalty towards malaya
- emergency still continued - cpm demobilization, attacks didn't stop until 1989
- increasing attacks, bombing of national monuments, police officers, political targets
-
1960s
- cpm revises manifesto
- malays no longer ethnic core - all races should be treated equally
- rejects malay as national language
- languages of three major races be made official languages
-
july 31, 1960
end of emergency
-
late 1960s
increase in parties of religious fundamentalism (islam)
-
1963
- formation of federation of malaysia
- federation of malaya joined by british colonies of sabah, sarawak and singapore
- indonesian confrontation - military opposition to formation of federation of malaysia: leader of indonesia sukarno favoured communist indonesia, regarded expansion as continuation of british colonial presence
-
1965
- singapore leaves malaysia
- communist insurgency begins in sarawak
-
1965 - 1966
- military coup in indonesia led by suharto, overthrew sukarno
- indonesia becomes strongly anti-communist - political genocide of left-wing and left-wing sympathisers
- new order established
-
1969
- malays stage anti-chinese riots
- due to frustration over economic success of ethnic chinese
-
1970
- turn abdul razak becomes pm after rahman's resignation
- formation of national front (bn) coalition
-
1971
minimum quotas for malays in education, business, civil service introduced by government
-
-
two representations of conflict
- conflict in which ussr was involved
- independence movement which did not involve ussr
-
political impact
- kept laws which repressed politic views - legacy of authoritarian rule
- Civil right limitations
- present during Emergency were included in new constitution
Malaysia remained a strong, anti-communist British ally - Hostility with Indonesia who wouldn't recognize the independence and sovereignty of the Federation of Malaysia
Military reaction in 1963 - The Indonesian Confrontation - Formation of an independent parties system
- Independent non-aligned
- foreign policy
- Malays still privileged - "real people of the land"
-
economic impact
- Economy was growing 8% per year
- Making double the money it made before the Emergency
- Reduction of poverty
- Urbanization:
Sector of rubber and tin - still maintained - not affected at all
- Contribution to economic
- success
- Industrialization:
Investments in - infrastructure, industry, education
- Encouraging employment in industry
- Developing modern industry
- UK was keen to keep their interests unthreatened - reluctant to give up Malaya due to profit
- Chinese controlled certain sectors (import - export) - economic success
- Malays inhabited rural areas - lower living standards, greater tensions and rivalries
-
social impact
- Reduction of poverty brought about higher living standard style
- Two-tiered system of education
Both taught according to national curriculum - common syllabus, Malay language enforced as the national language - One system also taught Tamil, Chinese - originally only these, later on Malay as well
- Further segregation
- Misinterpreted Emergency and insurgency in educational system
War for peace within a country and not a war for independence - Communists = terrorists
- Anti-communist and pro-western - influence on society
- Malay people became the constituent ethnicity - domination of communal parties
Put in a higher position due to defeating the communists - Large scale urbanization
Majority of urban population is the Chinese - moved to new villages during Emergency - Increase of one ethnicity in concentrated places (Chinese in urban areas) - increase in tensions between ethnicities (Chinese more economically successful)
- Ethnicities stayed secluded
- from one another, remained in constant competition
- Industrialization
- Isolated villages for communist insurgents under Thailand's protection
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