behavioral Sciences

• Stimulates Bile 
• Stimulate peristalsis and secretions
• Contracts Bladder
• Contricts bronchi

• Inhibits bladder
• stimulates orgasm
• Stimulate glucose production and release 
• Kidney secrets adrenaline and noradrenaline
• stimulates sweating 
• relaxes bronchi

• The brain is Padded from the inside, out 
• Pia mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Dura matter 
• Pia is the mater that is closest to the brain and dura is furthest way. These are the meninges of the brain

• Basal Ganglia- movement 
• Cerebral Cortex- Complex processes
• Medulla oblongata- Vital functioning
• Reticular formation- alertness and arousal

• Forebrain(prosencephalon)
• divided into telencephalon and diencephalon
• Midbrain(mesencephalon)

• electron donor 
• possess a lone pair of electrons

• produce by the C-cells or parafollicular cells of the thyroid
• responds to high levels of calcium and works to bring it down in three main ways
• preventing absorption of calcium int he gut
• reduce resorption of bone
• and excreting it in the urine by reducing Ca2+ absorption in the kidneys

• produces t3 and t4
• responsible for resettinght basal metabolism system and cellular respiration 
• The thyroid hormones are created by the follicular cells of th tyroid

• produces parathyroid hormone
• works to increase the levels of calcium in the blood by resorping in the kidney 
• increase resorption in the gut and resorbing bone 
• also involve in the phosphate levels of the blood and controlling that

• allow for the release of neurotransmitters
• regulates muscle contraction 
• bone structure and strength 
• clotting factor in the blood

it is necessary in order for ca2+ to be absorbed in the gut

cannot form new memories after the brain injury. Only remembers things from the past before the accident happened

• cannot remember anything from before the accident
• can form new memories however

• produces tropic hormones that get release and activate direct hormones of the anterior pituitary gland 
• the hypothalamus communicates with the posterior pituitary vie nerve bodies that axons terminate in the posterior pituitary

• inhibited by dopamine aka prolactin inibiting factor produced by the hypothalalmus 
• Prolactin in directly made by the anterior pituitary gland .

• Amino acid derived hormones 
• Steroid hormones 
• peptide hormones

• ADH- activated when there us too much solute in the plasma and the plasma is low. 
• this activated the tubes of the kidney to resorp water. resulting in retention of water and increase in blood pressure  and volume
• Adh also changes the osmolarity of the blood by decreasing the concentration

• responds to low blood pressure.
• does not change the osmoloarity of blood plasma 
• increases blood volume and pressure 
• this works by activating the resorption go NA in the distal convoluted tublules of the kidney. 
• where Na goes H20 goes 
• this is a steroid hormones and is created by the adrenal cortex of the kidney 
• Aldosterone is under the control of othe renin-angiottensis system

• norepi
• epi
• serotonin
• dopamine

• Glucocorticosteroid- increase sugar 
• Mineralocorticoids- increase salt
• Cortical sex hormones- increase sex hormones

• hormones that are produced from pieces of a polypeptide that his modified by the golgi appartus.
• these are charged therefore they can travel directly in blood
• there are the first messengers that activate the second messenger and lead to a signalling cascade
• they are extracellular that lead to changes in gene expression as it final affect
• Some hormones examples are all the hormones of the antrior pituitary

• made from choloestrol
• nonpolar thereofore they must be carried inthe blood by carried protein and have yto be cleaved from said protein to be activated
• long term effect byut very slow
• important steroid hormones are aldosterone, tesstosterone

• no well understood but come from 2 or more aminoacids 
• important hormones that are in this group are norepi, epi , t3 and t4

• make norepi and epi 
• work with the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervouse system 
• does glycogenlysis and increases sugar and Hr

• responsible for hunger and thirst
• gives you the urge to eat and drink

• satiety center
• have to do with fullness and felling satified what tell you to not eat.
• without it you well be a very hungry hippo

• sex center
• gives you the urge to have sex

• can act as a Bronsted-lowry acid or base
• thus it can accept a proton like a base of give one up like and acid 
• prime ex. water

• the hydrogen of the carbon attached to the carbon pof the carbonyl group.
• These hydrogens are easily lost 
• allows for enol formation

• aldehyes 
• ketones
• carboxylic acids 
• alcohols

amines and amides

• feeding
• fight
• flight
• sexual functioning

• contain the precentral gyrus 
• this isalso called the primary motor cortex
• this lob is responsible for excutive function

• spacial processing
• contains the postcentral gyruswernicke's area

• contains brocas ares
•  major language centers of the brain 
• had the auditory cortex

visual processing

• CHON with lone pair, negative sign or pi bonds
• need to react in polar solvents to dissolve

• charge-> more negative->more electrons 
• EN-> less EN
• Steric hinderance - less bulky 
• Solvent->aprotic solvents

• waters/alcohols, carboxylic acids , ammonia and amines 
• if not these typical aprotic  
• have proton in their solution

• substances that are positively changes
• tend to be a lewis acid because they are electron acceptors

stablized by being highly substituted with alkyl group because they act as electron donors

• increase in the oxidation state
• (oxidation state-charge that ion would have if all bond well completely ionic)
• a loss of electrons
• increase in bond to o or any other atom except C and H

• gain of electrons
• increase in bonds to hydrogen

• have high affinity for electrons
• is the one being reduced, thus it wants to get electrons
• often contain metal bonded to a large number of oxygens
• is reduced
• usually contain oxygen or another strongly en element

• decrease in the oxidation statehas a high
• gaining of electrons

• has high affinity for electon has 
• tend to be transition metals with hydride ions
• reduces another substance
• it is oxidized

• reactions preferenc for one functional group over the other in the presence of multiple functional groups 
• it is affected by steric hinderance and relative location of the functional group

• carbon of thee carbonyl because it has a positive polarization; basically they becom electrophiles 
• also the alhpa hydogen because it is stablized by residence and it is acidic and can be easily deprotonated by a strong base 
• for mining an enolate.

• result from a carbonly carbon attached to a carbon molecule.
• when a strong base plucks of the alpha hydrogen there is resonance of the carbonly bond to the main chaain and now the oxigen becomes nucleophile that can attack near by electrophiles.

• result in steric protection of a functional group 
• protecting groups lik diols that are used to protect ketones
• Acetal and Ketal are protecting groups

• an ion that is not used up in the reaction but appears on both side in the same form .
• They can be removed in a ionic reaction to get the complete ionic reaction

• when elements undergo both oxidation and reduction in producing it products 
• e.g. catalase and superoxide dismutase 
• where oxygen is on both of the molecule but oxygen in one molecule is being oxidized while oxygen in the other molecules is being reduced 
• often done by enzymes and have Cu or Zn in their active site

• monitor the movement of transfer of electrons to the reach the equivalence point 
• must balance charge andstoichiometry

moles of solute over liters of solution

f carbon sugar and nitorgenous base

• one or more phosphates attach to c5 of a nucleoside 
• building blocks of DNA

the negative charges are in close proxmity in the phosphate groups.There is energy associated with the repulsion of the negative charges. thus removing the terminal phosphate releases energy

• 5' to 3'
• from the phosphate to the sugar

• Cyclic : ring structure 
• planar- flat not sterochem 
• conjugated - has alterning single and multiple bonds OR lone pairs (create unhybridized p-orbital )
• follows the rule 4n+2 π electrons. Huckel;s rule
• *fairly unreactive

The amount of A's always equal the amount of T and C withhh G's

• right-handed helix of DNA
• 10 base pairs between each turn

• left-handed helix  that contain 12 bases within each turn 
• high salt of GC concentration may explain this type of DNA
• unstable

chromosomes that are wrapped around histones

seals off dna as it enters and leaves the nucleosome

when the 4 histone proteins form a core and are wrapped in DNA

• compact 
• dark 
• dense
• silent

• light 
• un-condensed
• expressed
• e for expressed !

• a simple  repeating unit  at the end of DNA made by telomerase . 
• shortening of teleomeres contribute to aging 
• has a high GC concentration 
• prevent unraveling of DNA

• region of Dna found in the center of chromosomes 
• made from heterochromatin

Assist the DNa polymerase

unwinds your DNA . Unzips your genes(jeans ;))

bind to unraveled DNA preventing them from reassociating

• introduces negative supercoils 
• nicking one or more strands 
• prevents stress from uncoiling 
• reseals the cut strands

• responsible for reading DNA and replicating new daughter strand 
• can ONLY reads the 3' to 5' but makes in the 5' to 3' direction

• copied in a direction opposite to the direction of the replication fork
• Okazaki fragments are made on the lagging strand

largest part of the fallopian tube

• The sperm releases arcrosomal enzymes that allows it to burrow through secondary oocyte 
• after this the cortical reaction happens in which a release of Ca2+ depolarize the membrane of the ovum preventing it from getting fertilized by other sperm

• rapid mitotic cell division
• two type: indeterminate and determinate 
• indeterminate- cells that can still become a complete organism 
• determinate-cells whose fates are already determined ; they become a certain type of cell

solid mass of cell that develop from the multiple division of the embryo

process that a morula undergoes to become a blastula

• Hollow ball of cells with a fluid filled inner-cavity known as a blastocoel.
• Blastocyst is the name of mammilian blastulas.
• two cell groups in a blastula:
• 1)Trophoblast-surrounds the blastocoel and gives rise to the chorion and the placenta.
• 2)Inner cell mass- protrudes into the blastocoel and creates the organism itself.

• develops into the placenta
• develops mebrane around amnion

• two arteries and one vein 
• the vein carries blood with nutrients from placenta to embryo
• arteries cary waste away

• thin membranous sac filled with amniotic fluid 
• serves as shock observer

• The ability of nearby cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells 
• medicate from inducers that diffuse form the oranizin cells to the responsive cells.

development of the nerbous system

substances that interfere with the development of the fetus

during the blastula phase

becomes the peripheral nervous system

• the commitment of a cell to have a particular function in the future
• but doesn't produce the products to carry pout the function of that cell type as yet.

• e.g. embryonic stem cells 
• these cells can differentiate into any cell type

can differentiate into any cell type except the ones found in the placental structure .

these cells can develop into multiple cell types within a specific group.

after cells have been determined they undergo this process that helps the cell assume the right structure, function, and biochemistry of that cell type

• autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and juxtacrrine 
• autocrine- when signal acts on the cell that created it
• paracrine- when signal acts on the cells in the local area
• juxtacrine-cel directly stimulating receptors of the adjacent cell 
• endocrine-signals that involve hormones that travel through the blood to there distant target tissue

peptides that promotes differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues.

when one things gets induced and produces a cascade of inductions.

• programmed cell death 
• the cell "popping "open 
• apoptotic blebs
• prevent realese of harmful substance in the cell to the surroundings

• when cell dies from the outside as a result of injury
• imagine someone coming behind you and slitting you throat "neck"
• the cell contents are let into the extraxellular surrounding cell environment

• molecules that cause determination of cells to follow a specific developmental path 
• this uses gradients of the morphogens; there are multiple morphogens and multiple combinations of exposure that lead to the differentiation of different cell types.

• biologiccal aging 
• failure of cells to divide 'due to the shortening of telomreres

• how the liver of the fetus is bypassed 
• this shunts blood directly from the placenta via teh umbilical vein  inferior vena cava

• a one-way valve that connects the right atrium to the left atrium.
• the pressure in the right atrium of the heart is higher than that in the left atrium but this changes for adulthood and after birth.
• this shunts allows for the pumping of the blood through the systemic circulation

• actively direct blood flow away from the lungs and the liver since they are relkatively inactive for the fetus and they are developing 
• these organs are undeveloped and ensitive to high blood pressure

shunts leftover blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta

has higher affinity for oxygen than the mother ehich assists with how the fetus gets oxygen.

site of gas, waste and nutrient exchange. it has two umbilical arties leading away from the babuy and one vein leading to the baby.

• the major organs are forming 
• the bone begins to harden 
• becomes a fetus; no longer and embryo
• first three months

• tremendous amount of growth 
• face looks human 
• toes and fingers elongate 
• 4x the size

• rapid growth and brain development 
• antibody transport
• growth rate slows and less active

• helped by prostaglandins and oxytocin 
• Phases:
• cervix thins
• aminotic sac ruptures
• uterine contractions

• fourg stages:G1,S, G2, and M
• firt three phases are known as interphase

offshoot of G1 of the cell cycle where cells that do not divide stay.

• presyntetic Gap 
• increase in size and functional organelles used for protein and energy
• secured by a restriction point is set in this phase to prevent faulty DNA fom entering S phase

• Synthesis of DNA 
• replicates genetic material 
• chromosome is made up of two chromatids attached at a centromere 
• Ploidy does no change, meaning it still has the same number of chromosome even though daughter cells were replicated 
• still have 46 chromosomes even though there are 92 chromatids
•  there is twice as much DNA

• postsynthetic stages 
• goes through another restiction point 
• make sure that there are no errors
• make sure that the cell has enough cytoplam and organelles to divide

divided up into four stages :PMAT

• chromsome is a single chromatid before S phase
• but also refers to a pair of chromatids attached to by a centromere after s phase

• controls the g1/s restriction point that makes sure that the the DNA is good enough to be replicated.
• produced by TP53

concerned with proper replication of DNA and making sure that the cell has enough organelles and cytoplasm

when homologouse sister chromosomes are seperate in Meiosis I generating haplaid daughter cells.

when sister chromatids are separate much like in mitosis.

• they are seperate chromosomes
• they are not identical
• chromosomes like this are the ones that are involved in crossing over

identical dna strands conneected at a centromere

• Meiosis -
• In prophase I, homologous chromosomecome together and form a synapsis.

• happen when homolgoues break at the chiasm and exchange some genetic info
• recombination leaves chromatids structurally sound
• increases diversity- cause each daughter cell will have a unique pool of alleles.

• seminiferous tubules (ST) and the interstitial cells of leydig (COL)
• ST-nourished by the seritoli cells, highly coiled.
• COL- secrete testosterone and androgen

• SEVEN UP
• Seminiferous tubules - where the formation of haploid sperm occur via meiosis
• Epididymis- sperm is stored and has the ability to move
• Vasdeferece- during ejaculation it does through here
• Ejaculatory duct- Two of them; located at the back of the prostate and sperm travel through here until these ducts fuse
• Urethra- the channel out of the penis that forms from the fusing of the ejaculatory duct

• seminal vesicles- give sperm sugar for energy
• SV and prostate - make fluid basic
• bulbourethral / cowper's glads- precum to clean the urethra

• Reults in 4 sperm for each permatogonium
• spermatogonia- dipoloid stem cells
• primary spermatocyte- dipolid
• secondary spermatocyte- haploid, because second means two; created by first mieotic division
• spermatids; haploid generataed from mieosis II 
• spermatozoa- mature sperm

external female anatomy

• primary oocytes-diploid and arrested in prophase I 
• Secondary oocyte- result of menarche  which makes the primary oocyte completes meiosis; which is then locked in metaphase II of meiosis two until sperm 
• Pneumonic to remeber the ereested stages 
• P.M.S
• primary locked in prophas I
• Secondary locked in metaphase II  until
• sex gives sperm to complete meiosis II splitiing into an OVUM and POLAR BODY

• Zona pellucida- the inside layer  contains proteins that allow the sperm to bind and glycoproteins that protects the oocyte 
• corona radiata -outside layer that got on the egg during ovulation

• aim is to reduce the symptoms 
• controversial since it doesnt take into account how lifestyle and socioeconomic style can cause these disorders

• considers the biology/genetics of the disorder
• the indivuals emotions, thoughts, and behaviors
• then the social environment- who they are around and their perceived class in society 
• involve indirect therapy  which aims to increase social support  through education of people around individual .

• manual for classifying psychological disorders 
• give list of symptoms

• psychotic disorder- hallucinations, negative symptoms, catonia, delusions, disorganized thoughts and behaviors
• symptoms must persist for 6 months
• split mind meaning split from reality

• positive 
• behaviors thouhts, and feeling added to normal behavior - delusion, disorg, behaviors and thoughts, catonic 
• negative 
• absence of normal behaviors such as disturbance of affect or avolition (decrease in purposeful behavior)

• false beliefs regarless of contrary evidence
• refernece delusions - environmental components have to deal with or are directed to the person. e.g. television characters are talking about them 
• persecution delusions- belief that the person is being plotted again, threatened, or discriminated against
• grandeur- belief that they are remarkable in some significant way. 
• e.g. an icon

belief that ones thought are broadcast to the open world.

thoughts are being put in the person with scizz head.

• perceptions that arent't cause by anything from the outside but have a convincing sense of reality 
• hearing and seeing things that are not there

schizo. person creates new words

• lossening og assocation when carrying on a conversation there are no way for the words and ideas to fit together.
• word salad

• cannot carry out activites for daily living 
• catatonia fall under this because it describes its the moto beahviors like increase activity or rigor in posture, echolia- reapting another words or echopraxia-repating anothers actions

• blunting- reduction in display and experience of emotion
• flat affect- no emotional expression
• inappropriate affect - emotion that does not fit the individuals speech. e.g. laughing when talking about death

• phase before the onset of schizophreania 
• symptoms include- deterioration, withdrawal from society, peculiar behavior...

• must meet atleast 5 pf the symptom crteria for atleast 2 weeks
• - weight changes
• - anhedonia- loss of interest in previously interested activies 
• - depressd mood
• - difficulty thinking/ concentrating
• - thoughts of death or suicide
• SIG E. CAPS
• sleep, interest, guilt, energy, concentration, appetite, psychomotor symptoms , an suicidal

• persistent depressive disorder 
• not as severe and major depressive ddisorder but last for atleast two years

• symptoms only present in winter
• treated with bright light therapy because it is believe to do with melatonin levels

• mood disorder that has both mania and depression
• BD I - mania w/ or w/o depressive episode 
• BDII- hypomania with at least one depressive episode

• last > one week 
• the symptyoms are DIG FAST
• distractible 
• Insomnia (dont need as much sleeep)
• Grandosity (inflated self-esteem)Flight of ideas ( racing thoughts)
• Agitation 
• Speech (pressured)
• Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

more energetic and optimistic  does impair functioning

combination of hypothemia and and periods of dysthmia ; not as sever as major depressive disorder

• too much nor epi and serotonin lead to mania and vice versa leads to ddepression 
• why SSRI's work ?

• disportionate and persistent worry about life 
• have symptoms like fatigue, muscle tenstion, and sleep problems

• very commons
• irrational fear that causes person to completely avoid
• cause by a specific pobject or situation

fear in social situations

fear of being in a place that it may be hard to escape

• many panic attacks 
• hyperventalating, sweating, trembling, fear....
• sometimes followed by agrophobia 
• excessive activationof the sympthetic nervours symptom

• obsessions- intrusive and persistent thoughts that produce tension; rasies stress
• compulsions- repetitive thoughts that release tension; relieves it

• basis of longterm memory 
• due to rehersal and relearning
• strengthening neural connections

• unrealistic negative evalution of body part 
• often seek plastic surgery

result from traumatic experience or witnessing

• symptoms are negative cognitive symptoms (NCS), arousal, intrusion, and avoidance
• NCS- a negative view of the world, distant from people, neagtive attitude 
• arousal- increased startle behavior 
• instrusion-reliving the situation 
• avoidance- avoid anything having to do with the situation

person avoid stress by escaping their identity

• inability to recall past experiences 
• belive they are someeone else
• characterized by dissociative fugue-sudden moving fromone hom or location of usual daily activities

• two or more personality that recureently take place of a person
• personalities are not intergrated

• people feel detached from thier own body and mind or surrpundings
• spymptoms- out of body experience, cant recognize one's self in mirror

one body symptom that could or could not be medical but the person has disportionate concern and worry about it; increased anxiety

• concenrned with developing serious meddcial illness ; toughts are consuming 
• hypochhondrias

• aka hysteria
• unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions
• may cause blindness of paralysis
• usually happens after tramatic or stresful event

• part of conversion disorder
• unconcenred by the symptoms of conversion disorder that have no explanation

• Ego syntonic- person see nothing wrong with symptoms
• three W's
• weird- Cluster A (Paranoid, Schizotypal , schizoid0
• Wild -cluster B (narcissitic, histrionic,  borderline, antisocial)
• worried -cluster C (avoidant, dependant OCD)
• rememeber how many are in each 3,4,3

distrust of others and their motives

ideas of reference (like delusionals of refrenence but not as extreme ) and magical thinking belief in clairvoyance); odd thinking

• deteach from social relationship, few emotional range and poor social skills. no desire for social interaction 
• not the same as schizophrenia

• more common in men
• disregard and violation of rights of others
• lack of remorse, aggressive, deceitful, and illegal acts
• find alot of peoplle like this in prision and serial killers

• more common in females
• characterized by splitting- view people as all good or all bad
• instability in interpersonal relationships, mood, and self-image

• constant attention seeking
• very extroverted
• dramatic  or seductive

• big sense of importance 
• need to be admired and have attention 
• have fragile self-esteems 
• constantly concerned about how people view them

• extreme shyness and fear of rejection 
• socially isolated even thought they want to be accepted 
• want change but will not go for it

• constant need for reassurance 
• dependent on a specific person  to make decisions are take action

• differen from OCD somatic disorder 
• this one id life long  and ego syntonic 
• OCD is the opposite.
• perfectionist
• inflexible
• likes order and rules
• sttuborn 
• dont want to change
• routine
• no sense of humor

• excess in dopamine ; med to block dop 
• is partially inherited but can be affected by environemental factor like soking lots of weed

• decrease in the monoamine are catecholamines
• hippocompal  atrophy , amygdala high metabolism
• affectedd by genetic becasuse runs in family

• large loss in memory
• neurfililary tangles
• plaques of β- amyloid
• increase ventricular space
• too little acetecholine (remember alzehmiers has a deficiency in the a neurotransmitter )
• presenilin gene, apoliprotein  and β- amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosomes 
• common in old people; common in women

• tremors, stooped posture and shuffling gait, masklike facies
• too little dopamine
• essentially the opposite of schizophrenia 
• they take L dopa to increase dopamine leavels
• decrease dop production in substania nigra which the dop them permit the functyioning of the  basal ganglia which is responsible for smooth movment, initiation and stopping of movement which explains symptoms

• show how ideas in the passage are connect
• included difference and similarity key words;
• shows the author is keeping the same idea going
• similarity- example phrase addition phrases ,
• colons (:) and semicolons (;) are the same thing as an equal sign, look out for quations, dashes and pernthsis.

difference- signal change of direction of text,need attention, anticipate while you read and if it goes beyond expectation goot question material

• black and white;, no gray 
• show conflict between ideas
• often show dictomies

• shows connection but also departure form one part 
• can show time-basd difference

• comparing the superiority of idea
• withh words like best, most,  or vice versa
• can show judgment and attitude

• positive shows that the author feel good about this text and negative is vice verse.
• there are extremes for both 
• most of the time the MCAt put moderate clauses. modeerate clause make a claim easier to accept with word like " could, in this case, might, may, can, at this time"

• very sparse 
• sometimes give connections and not logical justifications
• conclusion- what the author is trying to get you to believe 
• evidende reasons to believe it 
• evidence and conclusion keywords often signifiy diff. relation (e.g. cause & effect)

• provide reason to not accept a conclusion 
• words like despite, notwithstanding, chellaneg object, conflict, crttique, problem

form blood brain barrier. controls solute intake from blood into nervous system

line ventricles and makes CSP  help protect brain

ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in CNS

• Temporal-mutiple signals summation during a short period of time. e.g. # of small excitatory signals all happening near the same time.
• Spatial-summation is based on the number and location of the incoming signal. more inhibitory neurons firing at once results in more hyperpolarzation.

how action potential travel down the axon and the opening of Na channels in one region of the cell causes/ inducing na channels that are proximal  to open as well. moving in one direction

• cross section increase- pot. increase
• length decrease- pot. increase and vice versa

postsynaptic cell will e sep or hyper, while the other changes levels in cAMp or influx of calcium, respectively.

• enzymes break it down
• reuptake carrie bring it back into the presynatic cell
• or they just diffuse out of the cleft

axons and myelin sheath

cell bodies and dendrites

• the concentration of substrate required for an enzyme to be active at half of it maximum velocity (V max)
• small/lower Km means that the enzyme has a high affinity for the substrate; require small amount of substrate to be saturated 
• so large Km means low affinity and the enzyme needs more of the substrate to be saturated. 
• inversely related to affinity

• The rate limiting enzyme 
• inhibited by ATP, and citrate
• Induced by AMP 
• enryg produced stop it and low energy increase it

• when ADP is directly translated to ATP for 3-phosphoglycerate kinase 
• Is one of the only ways for ATP to be made anaerobically

the product of an earlier reaction in glycolysis stimulate/prepares a later reaction in the same cycle

• goal is to replenish NAD+
• lactase dehyrogenase 
• prevents glycolysis from stopping at Glyceraldehyde 3 P with the replenishing of NAD+
• happens during poor oxygen conditions 
• allows ATP to be generated by aerobic respiration

• How Glycolysis Pushed Forward the Process:Kinases 
• Hexikinase
• Glucokinase
• PFK-1
• Pyruvate Kinases

• anareobic
• 2-ATP per glucose
• bisphophoglycerate mutase tjat produces 2,3-BPG from 1,3-BPG in glycolysis 
• 2,3,BPG is what is responsible for lowered o2 affinity in Hemoglobin 
• rememeber: Exercise is the right thing to do 
• This is because when you have low O2, high Co2 , low ph, and high 2,3-BPG from strenuousnactivities like exercise

• The electrical potential difference in a cell 
• + emf- system can release energy and vice verse 
• this also means that GIBBS free energy is - <0
• and spontaneous

• from anode to cathode
• just like the ABC's
• and the current(I)  goes in the opposite direction

the flow of positive charge

• two different electrodes placed in seprate compartments called half cells.The half cells are connected by a copper wire. electrolyte solution surrounds the electrodes.
• solutions are connected by a salt bridge