Lecture 3 - conducting research in the field

• direct method of agreement (if something is a necessary cause, it must always be represent when we observe the effect)
• method of difference (if two situations are exactly the same in every aspect except one and one has the effect but not the other, so the one thing they don’t have in common is likely to be the cause of the effect)
• combination of methods of agreement + difference (combining method 1 and 2)
• method of residue (if many conditions cause many outcomes and we have matched the conditions to the outcomes on all but on, then the remaining condition must cause the remaining outcome)
• method of concomitant variation (the stronger the correlation between the two things, the more likely that one caused the other)

• strength — the larger the association, the more likely it is causal
• consistency — consistent observations of suspected cause and effect in various times + place raise likelihood of causality
• specificity — the proposed cause results in a specific effect in a specific population
• temporality — the cause precedes the effect in time
• biological gradient — greater exposure to the cause leads to greater effect
• plausibility — the relationship between cause and effect is biologically and scientifically plausible
• coherence — epidemiological observation and lab findings confirm each other
• experiment — when possible, experimental manipulation can establish cause and effect
• analogy — cause-and-effect relationships have been established for similar phenomena

• if it can be empirically tested, it is within the realm of science and might be true
• a theory that cannot be disproven is worse than useless, because it is outside the realm of science

• refers to what would have happened in a different world
• this condition can establish causality but unfortunately it is impossible to do

• individual factors that contribute to a disease
• (individual slices of pie)

• the complete pie
• disease can have more than one sufficient cause

• a component cause that appears in every path or pathway
• without it, the disease cannot occur

a categorical all-or-none variable that is both necessary and sufficient for a disorder to emerge

when threshold is exceeded, the individual is at risk for the disorder, below threshold there is no risk

individuals risk for the disorder increases sharply once past the threshold, it is low when below the threshold but not zero

• variables that are necessary but not sufficient for a disorder
• elevated levels of certain variables create a diathesis = vulnerability
• both the vulnerability + stresses are necessary for disorder to emerge

• detailed examination of a single individual
• good for context of discovery, poor for justification
• pros - can demonstrate existence of rare phenomenon

• when researchers randomly assign participants to one of two conditions
• experimental group receives experimental manipulation

• comparison of two or more groups defined by pre-existing characteristics
• cannot draw causal info bc no random assignment of groups
• can be numerous confounding variables involved
• matching — equating the quasi-experimental groups on potentially confounding variables

an attempt to produce variants of psychopathology in either humans or animals

• assuming the analogue provides adequate model to compare
• can be unethical or impractical to create symptoms

• attempts to produce a simulated form of a mental disorder in non-humans
• but have to be cautious in generalizing findings to humans

• when researchers present participants w/stimuli thought to trigger a pathological response
• ethical concerns!!

• each subject serves as his or hew own control
• ABA or reversal design can measure baseline behavior
• pitfall - some interventions cannot be withdrawn/reversed