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macrolinguistics
- analyzes utterances
- concrete linguistic contributions to communicative interactions made by individuals, cf. parole
- interested in how and why people actually use language
- functional analysis
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microlinguistics
- analyzes sentences
- abstract linguistic, grammatical units, cf. langue
- interested in the language people potentially use
- descriptive analysis
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illocution
intention/ function behind the speech act
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perlocution
effect on the hearer
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locution
actual act of producing language
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speech act types
- apology
- thanking
- offer
- suggestion
- request
- threat
- complaint
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five speech act classes
- assertives
- directives
- commissives
- expressives
- declarations
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assertives (representations)
- statements about the world
- e.g. asserting, concluding, stating, remarking
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directives
- attempt by the speaker to get the hearer to do something
- e.g. requesting, questioning, commanding
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expressives
- express a psychological state of speaker, excalamtions
- e.g. greeting, thanking, apologising, congratulating
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declarations
- changes the institutional state of affairs
- e.g. declaring war, firing from employment, baptizing
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speech act identification
performative verbs/ hereby test
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IFIDs
Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices
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Illocutionary Force
- the ability of an utterance to fulfill a specific function
- e.g. imperative form for requests, sorry for apology
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inferring
hearer has to infer the meaning of what is said
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felicitious
hearer correctly infers the intention, understands
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successful
hearer reacts as intended, perlocutions as expected
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apology felicity conditions
- propositional content: past act by S that S believes offended H
- preparatory: S is held responsible for act
- sincerity: S wants hearer to forgive
- essential: counts as an attempts to get the H to forgive the previous act
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request felicity conditions
- content: future act to be perfomed by the H
- preparatory: H is able to do the A. The S believes H is able to do the A. It is not obvious to both S and H that H will do A in the normal course of events of his own accord
- sincerity: S wants H to do A
- essential: counts as an attempt to get the H to do A
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direct speech acts
- speaker wants to communicate the literal meaning that the words conventionally express
- form-function- relationship
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indirect speech acts
S wants to communicate a different meaning from the apparent surface meaning
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Gricean pragmatics: Grice´s cooperative principle (CP)
people cooperate in communication and rely on this cooperation to make conversation efficient
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maxim of quantity
give as much information as is necessary for the interlocutors to understand your utterances, do not give more information than is necessary
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maxim of quality
say only what you believe to be true and for what you have evidence
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maxim of relevance/ relation
be relevant: say what is relevant in the present context
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maxim of manner
be orderly and clear, avid obscurity of expression and ambiguity, be brief
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flouting maxims
- they don´t observe one or more of Grice´s maxims, but not to mislead or sabotage their interlocutor
- generartes conversational implicature
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violating maxims
conversational maxim is purposely violated, uncooperative behavior, does not lead to conversational implicature
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conversational implicature (CI)
- not part of the conventional meaning of what is said
- interpretation is context dependent
- as additional meaning conveyed by a speaker adhering to the cooperative principle
- H needs to make inferences to find the intended meaning of what is said
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politeness theory (Brown & Levinson)
politeness: appropriate communicative behavior relative to a social situation
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indirectness
- is not the same as politeness
- can work as a politeness strategy
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face
the public self- image that members of a society want to claim for themselves
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negative face
- the want that one´s action be unimpeded by others
- desire to be left alone
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positive face
- the want that one´s self-image is approved of by others
- desire to be liked
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face threatening act (FTA)
- act that by their nature run contradictory to the face wants of the addressee and/ or speaker
- e.g. orders, requests, threats, remindings
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politeness strategies
- used to minimize/avoid face damage
- do FTA vs. don´t do FTA
- FTA: on record: baldy, without redressive action or with redressive action
- positive vs. negative politeness
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positive politeness
- e.g. make compliments
- use nicknames or endearment terms
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negative politeness
- e.g. apologize
- use titles, full names
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micro social variables for estimating the risk of face loss
- D: social distance
- P: relative power
- R: (absolute) ranking of impositions
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