-
THis is the cell cycle
Cell growth and chrom. replication, Chrom. segregation, and cell division
-
What is going on in the S Phase?
Chromosome duplication
-
What is going on in the M Phase?
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
-
What is contained within Mitosis?
Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
-
What keeps the cell from moving through the point within the cell cycle?
Control points.
-
What is the control point?
Cyclin and Cyclin-dependent kinase, Cdk
-
In this phase the replication of chromosomes takes place. Two closely associated sister chromatids condense. mitotic spindles assemble between the two centrosomes.
Prophase
-
This phase starts abruptly with the breakdown of te nuclear envelope. Chromosomes can now attach to spindle microtubules via thier kinetochores and undergo active movement.
Prometaphase
-
In this phase the chromosomes are aligned at the equator of the spindle, midway between the spindle poles.
Metaphase
-
In this phase the sister chromatids sychronously seperate to form two daughter chromosomes and each is pulled slowly toward the spindle pole it faces.
Anaphase.
-
In this phase the two daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles of the spindle and decondense. A new nuclear envelope reassembles around each set, conpleting the formation of two nuclei and marking the end of mitosis.
Telpphase
-
In this phase the cytoplasm is divided in two by a contractile ring of actin and myosin filaments, which pinches the cell in two to create two daughter cells, each with on nucleus
Cytokinesis
-
What is connected to the chromosome and helps pull them apart during mitosis?
Kinetochore microtubules
-
What attaches the Kinetochore microtubules to teh chromosome?
Kinetochore
-
What connects the kinetochore microtuble to the kinetochore?
Ndc80 complex
-
the interpolar microtublues are attached by?
motor proteins
-
What are these motor proteins involves with mitosis?
Dynein, Linesin 14,5, 10
-
Dynein attaches where in mitosis?
The microtubules to the cell wall
-
What does kinesin 4, 10 carry?
carries chromatids and walks across the microtubules
-
Cytokinesis is contrcted by?
Actin and myosin filaments creating the contractile ring
-
this is known as programmed cellular death.
Apoptosis
-
whats the basic cycle for apoptosis?
Initiator caspase meets adaptor protiens and forms active caspase. This active caspase then meets up with axecutioner caspase and then is fully activated. Active caspase now cleaves multiple substrates leading to apooptosis.
-
What is the process of activation of endonuclease?
Inactive CAD is bound to iCAD. Executioner caspase cleaves iCAD and now CAD is active and can cleave DNA.
-
This is the extrinsic apoptosus signal aka the death recptor.
FAS death recptor.
-
What is the process of the death receptor?
FAS death receptor gets the signal from the FAS ligand on the killer lymphocyte, assembly of the DISC is made, and the activation and cleavage of caspase-B
-
Intrinsic apoptosis signal
The mitochonrdia releases cytochrome C and it attcahes to Apaf1. Apaf1 is activated and assembles apoptosome. Caspase 9 attaches to multiple points on the apoptosome and then activates executioner caspases
-
What are the three intrinsic apoptosis signals?
Anti-apoptoic Bcl2 family protein, Pro-apoptoic Bcl2 family protein, and Pro-apoptoic BH-3 only protein.
-
P53 has many jobs what are they?
Cell-cycle arrest, senescence, and apoptosis. Also a cancer regulator.
-
What activates P53?
Hyperproliferative signals, DNA damage, Telomere shortening, and hypoxia
-
These are uncontroled growths of cells atht can invade and colonize areas of the body
Cancer
-
Two types of cancer?
Benign and Malignant
-
A tumor that has not spread
Benign
-
A tunmor that has invaded surrounding , and may metastasize
-
This cancer arises from epithelial cells
Carcinomas
-
This cancer arises from connective tissue or muscle
Sarcomas
-
THis cancer arises from blood producing cells (hematopoietic cells)
Luekemias/lymphomas
-
This cancer arises from brain cells
Neuroblastomas/gliomas.
-
How many cancer cells are need to be seen on x-ray?
10^8
-
How many cancer cells are needed to be palpable?
10^9
-
How many cancer cells are needed to cause death?
10^12
-
cells grow and then invade the capillary blood system. They then adhere to the vessel and escape. Next they colonize creating full blown?
Metastasis
-
A mutation enables this to promote cell transformation. This from a single mutation event.
Oncogene
-
A mutation creates a suppressor gene and then what needs to happen. A second mutation event needs to happen and now will have two inactivation mutations.
Tumor suppressor gene.
-
What are some carcinogens?
Vinyl chloride, benzene, arsenic, asbesros, radium
-
What are the treatments for cancer?
Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, Immunotherapy, and Anti-angiogenesis.
-
Chemicals that kill rapidly dividing cells
Chemotherapy
-
Energy that is emitted to kill rapidly dividung cells
Radiation therapy
-
either enhancing the bodies immune system to kill cancer cells that attack cancer cells.
Immunotherapy.
-
Drugs that inhibit the formation of new blood vessels and thereby starve the tumors.
Anti-angiogenesis
-
When was the first stem cell transplantation done in humans?
1950's
-
These are unspecialized cells, capable of dividing and renewing themselves over long periods of time
Stem cells
-
Specialized cell types
Muscle, bone, hepatic, pancreatic, and neuron cells.
-
What are the different types of stem cells?
Emryonic stem cells (ESC), Induced Pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) cells, and Adult Stem Cells (ASC)
-
These stem cells can form the whole organism, including embryonic and extraembryonic tissues
totipotent
-
These stem cells can form many tissues. They can form all of the normal 3 cell layers that form all of the tissues in the body
Pluripotent
-
These stem cells can form several tissues. These are only a few, specific types of tissue.
Mulitipotent
-
Where do embryos come from?
Frozen IVF embryos left-over and newly created embryos in research labroatories. (especially those carry a genetic disease)
-
What is the path of sex cells?
Gamete-zygote-embryo-fetus-newborn-adult-gametes
-
where is the embryonic stem cell located?
the inner cell mass of the blastocoele
-
What are the challenges of embryonic stem cells?\
feeder layers are needed to keep them from proliferatuin and in a non-differentiated state. They also need to be treated with BMP or hugh levels of FGF to inhibit the genes involved in differentiation.
-
How are iPSC created?
any somatic cell in the body can be a source, mpost often skin cells. Gene engineering techniques are used to induced to express genes and factors that define embryonic stem cells.
-
What are the four genes added tp iPSCs?
oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc
-
What are the advantages of iPSC?
do not require an embryo to be the source, pluripotent, can be derived from yournown cells, and can provide models of human diseases.
-
stem cells, the DNA from any one cell in the body of a patient (usually a skin or muscle cell) could be removed and transferred through a microscopic glass tube into an unfertilized egg that previously had its own DNA removed. SCNT would lead to the production of cells and tissue matching one's self, that would not elicit rejection when the cells are transplanted into the patient.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer or stem cells
-
what are the properties of Adult stems cells aka mesenchymal stem cells (MSC)
can differentiate into specific cell types, are anti-inflammatory, inhibit the immune systen (T-Cells), and produce a variety of growth factors
-
What are the beniefits of stem cell research?
Idntify drug targets and test potential therapies, toxicity testing, tissues/cells of transplantation, study cell differentiation, and understanding prevention and treatment of birth defects.
-
How can osteoarthritis be affected by stem cells?
Generate new cartilage and tendons from MSC, iPSC, and embryonic stem cells. The can also stimulate growth and repair of existin cartilage and tendons using adult stem cells.
-
How can sickle cell anemia be treated by stem cells?
Use of bone marroe transplanrs or umbilical cord blood transfers, must eliminate existing marroe cells and inhibit immune rejection.
-
first law of thermodynaics
Energy cannot be created only transfered
-
second law of thermodynamics
Entropy is increasing. Processes are not 100% effcient - the waste energy is usually given off as heat. In order to create order it requires energy
-
what happens to energy in a open system?
Sntropy decreases; energy input increases order
-
What happens to energy in a cloased system?
entroy increases; no energy input, order decreases
-
The ability to do work
energy
-
Conversion of organic molecules allow cells to
harvest energy
-
what kind of rxn is photosynthesis?
reduction rxn
-
what kind of rxn is respiration?
oxidation rxn
-
What happens with a reduction rxn?
Gains electron and/or hydrogen
-
what haooens wirh a oxidation rxn?
loses electron and/or hydrogen
-
strong e- acceptor and oxidizes another molecule while it is being reduced
oxidizing agent
-
strong e- donor and reduces another molecule while it is being oxidized
reducing agent
-
when looking at the state of energy, which is higher, Macropmolecules or monomers?
Macromolecules
-
Standard conditions for standard free energy change
All molecules present in 1M concentration, pH of 7, standard temperature and pressure.
-
What is equilibrium?
Rate of forward rxn is = to rate of reverse rxn, system is at the lowest free energy and delta G = 0.* this doesnt mean that concentration of products is equal to the concentration of reactants.
-
total heat content, or stored potential energy
enthalpy (H)
-
energy available for work.
free energy (G)
-
formula for free energy?
?G = ?H - T?S
-
The unit of energy transfer in cells
Adenosine Triphosphate ATP
-
Energy is released from ATP when?
the terminal phosphate bond is broken
-
?G is positive, reaction is not spontaneous
endergonic rxn
-
? G is negative, reaction is spontaneous
Exergonic rxn
-
Overall ?G is negative; together, reactions are spontaneous
Coupled rxn
-
what are the three types of cellular work powered by ATP?
Mechanical, Transport, and chemical
-
are involved in oxidation/reduction reactions
NADH and NADPH
-
what are the three glucoese breaking proceses
Glycolysis (in cytoplasm), Kreb?s Cycle (TCA Cycle) (in mito matrix), Electron Transfer (in inner membrane of mito)
-
What other bimolecules can energy be gained from?
Lipids and proteins,
-
how are lipds broken down?
fatty acids, are broken down by ? -oxidation to form Acetyl-CoA which feeds directly into the Kreb's cycle. The glycerol group of lipids can enter glycolysis through gyceraldehyde phosphate (PGAL).
-
How are proteins broken down?
broken down into individual amino acids. The amino acids are deaminated (remove the amine group) and the two carbons are turned into Acetyl-CoA
-
During Glycolsis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphrylation what are the three basic rxns that occur?
Dehydrations, Decarboxylations, and rearrangements of molecules to makle tthem ready to undergo dehydrogenation and decarboxylations.
-
THis rxn occurns in the cytoplasm t0 create energy.
Glycolysis
-
Glycolysis turns glucoes into what?
2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP
-
Pyruvate can be used in what kind of respiration?
Aerobi and Anaerobic (fermentation)
-
what are the two types of fermentation?
Alcoholic and Lactic Acid
-
Whats the process of alcoholic fermentation?
2 pyruvate - 2co2 + 2 Acetaldehyde then 2Acetaldhyde + 2 NADH - 2 EtOH + 2ATP
-
What is the net ATP in alcoholic fermentation?
2 atp
-
Whats the process for lactic acid fermentation?
2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH - 2 LActic Acid + 2 NAD^+
-
What os teh net ATP in LActic Acid Fermentation?
2 ATP
-
Where is Acetyl-CoA created and is this called?
In the Mitochondria within the inner matrix. This is the Citric Acid Cycle
-
Pyruvate is turned into what during the citric acid cycle?
Acetyl-CoA
-
What is the process for the citirc acid cycle?
2 Pyruvate + 2 NAD + 2 CoA - 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 CO2 + 2 NADH
-
Whatetyl-CoA and is in the inner matric of the mitochondria?
Kreb"s Cycle
-
What is the process of the Kreb's cycle?
Acetyl-CoA - 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + 1 ATP
-
THis occurs in teh inner membrane of the mitochrondria.
Electron Transport SyStem
-
These carry out the electron transport and are embedded as integral proteins within the membrane.
Cytochrome proteins.
-
What is the obverall process for electrons in the cytochromes?
to be passed from NADH and FADH2 to the cytochromes in a sequence.
-
What is the last step in the cytochrome process?
to pass the electrons and hydrogens to 02 to form H2O
-
As a byproduct how much ATP will each NADH and FADH2 produce?
NADH= 3 ATP FADH2 = 2APT
-
As the electrons are passed down the cytochromes, energy is released and used to pump H+ into the intermembrane space, creating
an H+ ion concentration gradient
-
is an energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy in the form of a H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work
Chemiosmosis
-
Within the inner membrane there is a transmembrane protein channel for H+ ions which is coupled to an ATPase. The complex is called
ATP synthetase
-
As the H+ ions move down their new concentration gradient (from the intermembrane space to the matrix), they force the formation of a molecule of ATP from ADP and P. The energy to make the high-energy phosphate bond comes from the potential energy stored in the
Concentration gradient
-
Without O2, the ETS backs up and stops. Posions can also block it causing?
No production of ETS
-
Each molecule of glucose yields how much ATP?
38 ATP
-
Energy yield chart: Glycolysis
2 ATP 2NADH
-
Energy yield chart: Acetyl-CoA
2 NADH
-
Energy yield chart: Kreb's cycle
2ATP 6NADH 2FADH2
|
|