Ch01 - Artificial Intelligence

the ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria

capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding,and similar forms of mental activity; aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc.

How a mere handful of matter can ______ (4) a world far larger and more complicated than itself.

the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior

the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings.

The ______ occurs when onlookers discount the behavior of an artificial intelligence program by arguing that it is not real intelligence.

Thinking Humanly and Thinking Rationally are concerned with _______

Acting Humanly and Acting Rationally are concerned with ________

Thinking Humanly and Acting Humanly measure success in terms of fidelity to _______

Thinking Rationally and Acting Rationally measure against an ______ performance measure, called __________

The _________, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to provide a satisfactory operational definition of intelligence. A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing some written questions, cannot tell whether the written responses come from a person or from a computer.

The computer would need to possess the following capabilities in Turing test:

Enabling the computer to communicate successfully in English

Storing what the computer knows or hear

Using the stored information to answer questions and to draw new conclusions

Adapting to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns

Turing’s test deliberately avoided direct physical interaction between the interrogator and the computer, because _________ simulation of a person is unnecessary for intelligence.

Includes a video signal so that the interrogator can test the subject’s perceptual abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator to pass physical objects “through the hatch.”

To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need:

To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need to have computer vision to ________ and robotics to _________

Get inside the actual workings of human minds

Three ways to get inside the mind:

Trying to catch our own thoughts as they go by

observing a person in action

observing the brain in action

The interdisciplinary field of _________ brings together computer models from AI and experimental techniques from psychology to construct precise and testable theories of the human mind.

Necessarily based on experimental investigation of actual humans or animals.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify _______ that is, irrefutable reasoning processes

Aristotle's ________ provided patterns for argument structures that always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises. (meaning: deductive reasoning)

The laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the mind; their study initiated the field called ______.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "right thinking" that is, irrefutable reasoning processes. His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises.

If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have some way of determining how humans think.

Something that acts

computer agents do these:

A ________ is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.

_________ is sometimes part of being a rational agent, because one way to act rationally is to reason logically to the conclusion that a given action will achieve one’s goals and then to act on that conclusion.

All the skills needed for the Turing Test also allow an agent to act rationally. _________ enable agents to reach good decisions.

The rational-agent approach has two advantages over the other approaches:

Acting appropriately when there is not enough time to do all the computations one might like.

The first to formulate a precise set of laws governing the rational part of the mind. He developed an informal system of syllogisms for proper reasoning, which in principle allowed one to generate conclusions mechanically, given initial premises.

_______ had the idea that useful reasoning could actually be carried out by a mechanical artifact.

Proposed that reasoning was like numerical computation, that “we add and subtract in our silent thoughts.”

Designed but did not build a mechanical calculator

The first known calculating machine was constructed around 1623 by _________

Wrote that “the arithmetical machine produces effects which appear nearer to thought than all the actions of animals.”and built the Pascaline in 1642.

Built a mechanical device intended to carry out operations on concepts rather than numbers, but its scope was rather limited and surpassed Pascal by building a calculator that could add, subtract, multiply, and take roots, whereas the Pascaline could only add and subtract

In his 1651 book ________, Thomas Hobbes suggested the idea of an “artificial animal,” arguing “For what is the heart but a spring; and the nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but so many wheels.”

Gave the first clear discussion of the distinction between mind and matter and of the problems that arise. One problem with a purely physical conception of the mind is that it seems to leave little room for free will: if the mind is governed entirely by physical laws, then it has no more free will than a rock “deciding” to fall toward the center of the earth.

Descartes was a strong advocate of the power of reasoning in understanding the world, a philosophy now called _________.

Descartes was also a proponent of ________. He held that there is a part of the human mind (or soul or spirit) that is outside of nature, exempt from physical laws. Animals, on the other hand, did not possess this dual quality; they could be treated as machines.

An alternative to dualism is _______, which holds that the brain’s operation according to the laws of physics constitutes the mind. Free will is simply the way that the perception of available choices appears to the choosing entity.

Given a physical mind that manipulates knowledge, the next problem is to establish the source of knowledge.

The empiricism movement, starting with _________’s Novum Organum, is characterized by a dictum of ________: “Nothing is in the understanding, which was not first in the senses.”

________’s A Treatise of Human Nature proposed what is now known as the principle of induction.

That general rules are acquired by exposure to repeated associations between their elements

Building on the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell, the famous ________, led by ________, developed the doctrine of ___________.

This doctrine holds that all knowledge can be characterized by logical theories connected, ultimately, to _________ that correspond to sensory inputs; thus ________ combines rationalism and empiricism.

The ________ of Carnap and Carl Hempel attempted to analyze the acquisition of knowledge from experience.

Carnap’s book _________ defined an explicit computational procedure for extracting knowledge from elementary experiences. It was probably the first theory of mind as a computational process.

The final element in the philosophical picture of the mind is the connection between ________ and _________.

Argued (in DeMotu Animalium) that actions are justified by a logical connection between goals and knowledge of the action’s outcome

Aristotle’s algorithm was implemented 2300 years later by Newell and Simon in their GPS program. We would now call it a ___________

________ is useful, but does not say what to do when several actions will achieve the goal or when no action will achieve it completely.

John Stuart Mill’s book __________ promoted the idea of rational decision criteria in all spheres of human activity.

Worked out the details of propositional, or Boolean, logic.

Extended Boole’s logic to include objects and relations, creating the first order logic that is used today.

Introduced a theory of reference that shows how to relate the objects in a logic to objects in the real world.

The first nontrivial algorithm is thought to be _______ algorithm for computing greatest common divisors.

The word algorithm (and the idea of studying them) comes from __________, a Persian mathematician of the 9th century, whose writings also introduced Arabic numerals and algebra to Europe.

Kurt Godel's _________ showed that in any formal theory as strong as Peano arithmetic (the elementary theory of natural numbers), there are true statements that are undecidable in the sense that they have no proof within the theory.

Characterized exactly which functions are computable or capable of being computed

Although decidability and computability are important to an understanding of computation, the notion of _________ has had an even greater impact.

A problem is called __________ if the time required to solve instances of the problem grows exponentially with the size of the instances

The theory of NP-completeness, pioneered by ______ and ______, showed the existence of large classes of canonical combinatorial search and reasoning problems that are NP-complete.  Any problem class to which the class of NP-complete problems can be reduced is likely to be intractable.

Besides logic and computation, the third great contribution of mathematics to AI is the theory of _________.

First framed the idea of probability, describing it in terms of the possible outcomes of gambling events.

________ rule underlies most modern approaches to uncertain reasoning in AI systems.

Published "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations", first to treat economics as a science, using the idea that economies can be thought of as consisting of individual agents maximizing their own economic well-being.

The mathematical treatment of “preferred outcomes” or ______ was first formalized by Leon Walras

Combined probability theory with utility theory, provides a formal and complete framework for decisions made under uncertainty.

___________'s development of game theory included the surprising result that, for some games, a rational agent should adopt policies that are randomized.

Pursued in the field of ________, which emerged in World War II from efforts in Britain to optimize radar installations, and later found civilian applications in complex management decisions.

The work of _________ formalized a class of sequential decision problems called Markov decision processes.

The pioneering AI researcher ________ won the Nobel Prize in economics in 1978 for his early work showing that models based on ________—making decisions that are “good enough,

_________ is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain.

_______ wrote, “Of all the animals, man has the largest brain in proportion to his size.

_________’s study of aphasia (speech deficit) in brain-damaged patients demonstrated the existence of localized areas of the brain responsible for specific cognitive functions.

The brain consisted of nerve cells, or neurons, but _________ developed a staining technique allowing the observation of individual neurons in the brain

First to apply mathematical models to the study of the nervous system.

The measurement of intact brain activity began in 1929 with the invention by ________ of the electroencephalograph (EEG).

The recent development of _______ is giving neuroscientists unprecedentedly detailed images of brain activity, enabling measurements that correspond in interesting ways to ongoing cognitive processes.

A collection of simple cells can lead to thought, action, and consciousness or, in the pithy words of ________, brains cause minds

The only real alternative theory is _________: that minds operate in some mystical realm that is beyond physical science.

Futurists make much of the brain numbers, pointing to an approaching ______ at which computers reach a superhuman level of performance, but the raw comparisons are not especially informative.

Applied the scientific method to the study of human vision, and his Handbook of Physiological Optics is even now described as “the single most important treatise on the physics and physiology of human vision”

The behaviorism movement, led by ________, rejected any theory involving mental processes on the grounds. They insisted on studying only objective measures of the percepts (or stimulus) given to an animal and its resulting actions (or response).

__________, which views the brain as an information-processing device, can be traced back at least to the works of William James.

The Nature of Explanation, by ________ forcefully reestablished the legitimacy of such “mental” terms as beliefs and goals, arguing that they are just as scientific as, say, using pressure and temperature to talk about gases, despite their being made of molecules that have neither.

Craik specified the three key steps of a knowledge-based agent:

For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things:

The first operational computer was the _____________, built in 1940 by Alan Turing’s team for a single purpose: deciphering German messages.

Alan Turing’s team developed the ________, a powerful general-purpose machine based on vacuum tubes.

The first operational programmable computer was the Z-3, the invention of ______ in Germany in 1941. He also invented floating-point numbers and the first high-level programming language, Plankalkul.

The first electronic computer, the ABC, was assembled by ________

It was the ______, developed as part of a secret military project by a team including John Mauchly and John Eckert, that proved to be the most influential forerunner of modern computers.

The first programmable machine was a loom, by ________, that used punched cards to store instructions for the pattern to be woven.

Designed two machines, neither of which he completed: The Difference Engine and Analytical Engine

The world’s first programmer and wrote programs for the unfinished Analytical Engine and even speculated that the machine could play chess or compose music.

Built the first self-controlling machine: a water clock with a regulator that maintained a constant flow rate.

The steam engine governor, created by _______ and the thermostat, invented by __________, who also invented the submarine are self-regulating feedback control systems.

The central figure in the creation of what is now called control theory was ______,  developed an interest in biological and mechanical control systems and their connection to cognition

Norbert Wiener, Arturo Rosenblueth and Julian Bigelow challenged the _________. They viewed purposive behavior as arising from a regulatory mechanism trying to minimize “error”—the difference between current state and goal state

Wiener’s book _________became a bestseller and awoke the public to the possibility of artificially intelligent machines.

W. Ros Ashby’s Design for a Brain elaborated on his idea that intelligence could be created by the use of ________ devices containing appropriate feedback loops to achieve stable adaptive behavior.

_________, especially the branch known as ___________, has as its goal the design of systems that maximize an objective function overtime.

B. F. Skinner published _________, a comprehensive, detailed account of the behaviorist approach to language learning, written by the foremost expert in the field.

Published the book Syntactic Structures, pointed out that the behaviorist theory did not address the notion of creativity in language—it did not explain how a child could understand and make up sentences that he or she had never heard before.

Modern linguistics and AI, then, were “born” at about the same time, and grew up together, intersecting in a hybrid field called _________ or ___________.

The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was done by ________ and ________

McCulloch and Pitss drew on three sources for AI:

Demonstrated a simple updating rule for modifying the connection strengths between neurons. His rule, now called Hebbian learning.

________ and _________, built the first neural network computer, SNARC, used 3000 vacuum tubes and a surplus automatic pilot mechanism from a B-24 bomber to simulate a network of 40 neurons.

He proposed the Child Programme idea, which is the stimulation of a child's mind.

He moved to Stanford from Princeton and then to Dartmouth College, which was to become the official birthplace of the field.

Convinced Minsky, Claude Shannon, and Nathaniel Rochester to help him bring together U.S. researchers interested in automata theory, neural nets, and the study of intelligence.

Stole Minsky and the group's show, because they already had a reasoning program, the Logic Theorist (LT)

Why isn’t AI a branch of mathematics?

The first program to embody the “thinking humanly” approach.

Newell and Simon formulated the famous ___________ hypothesis, which states that “a __________ has the necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent action.

Constructed the Geometry Theorem Prover, which was able to prove theorems that many students of mathematics would find quite tricky.

Wrote a series of programs for checkers (draughts) that eventually learned to play at a strong amateur level.

Defined the high-level language Lisp, which was to become the dominant AI programming language and invented time sharing

McCarthy's program was designed to accept new axioms in the normal course of operation, thereby allowing it to achieve competence in new areas ____________.

McCarthy stressed representation and reasoning in ________, whereas Minsky was more interested in getting programs to work and eventually developed an ________.

A complete theorem-proving algorithm for first-order logic, McCarthy's plan.

First to demonstrate the complete integration of logical reasoning and physical activity.

Minsky supervised a series of students who chose limited problems that appeared to require intelligence to solve. These limited domains became known as _________.

The most famous microworld was the __________, which consists of a set of solid blocks placed on a tabletop.

Called his networks adalines

Hebb’s learning methods were enhanced by Frank Rosenblatt with his __________.

Says that the learning algorithm can adjust the connection strengths of a perceptron to match any input data, provided such a match exists.

(T/F) The fact that a program can find a solution in principle does not mean that the program contains any of the mechanisms needed to find it in practice.
True False

Based on the undoubtedly correct belief that by making an appropriate series of small mutations to a machine-code program, one can generate a program with good performance for any particular task.

Failure to come to grips with the __________ was one of the main criticisms of AI .

The picture of problem solving that had arisen during the first decade of AI research was of a general-purpose search mechanism trying to string together elementary reasoning steps to find complete solutions called ___________

The alternative to weak methods is to use more powerful, ___________ that allows larger reasoning steps and can more easily handle typically occurring cases in narrow areas of expertise.

The ________ program made by Ed Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanan, and Joshua Lederberg to solve the problem of inferring molecular structure from the information provided by a mass spectrometer.

The significance of DENDRAL was that it was the first successful __________

Feigenbaum, Buchanan, and Dr. Edward Shortliffe developed _______ to diagnose blood infections, an expert system.

Two major differences of MYCIN from DENDRAL system:

MYCIN incorporated a calculus of uncertainty called ________, which seemed to fit well with how doctors assessed the impact of evidence on the diagnosis

Minsky’s idea of ______, adopted a more structured approach, assembling facts about particular object and event types and arranging the types into a large taxonomic hierarchy analogous to a biological taxonomy.

The first successful commercial expert system, _____, began operation at the Digital Equipment Corporation which helped configure orders for new computer systems.

The Japanese announced the __________ project, a 10-year plan to build intelligent computers running Prolog

The United States formed the __________ as a research consortium designed to assure national competitiveness.

Came a period called the ________in which many companies fell by the wayside as they failed to deliver on extravagant promises.

Algorithm applied to many learning problems in computer science and psychology, and the widespread dissemination of the results in the collection Parallel Distributed Processing.

These models of intelligent systems is the defining characteristic of humans.

A rigorous mathematical theory that allowed speech researchers to build on several decades of mathematical results developed in other fields and are generated by a process of training on a large corpus of real speech data.

Those who think that AI theories should be grounded in mathematical rigor

Those who would rather try out lots of ideas, write some programs, and then assess what seems to be working.

As a result of improved methodology and theoretical frameworks in statistics, pattern recognition, and machine learning, ________  technology has spawned.

The __________ formalism was invented to allow efficient representation of, and rigorous reasoning with, uncertain knowledge.

Systems that act rationally according to the laws of decision theory and do not try to imitate the thought steps of human experts.

The work of Allen Newell, John Laird, and Paul Rosenbloom on _______ is the best-known example of a complete agent architecture.

One of the most important environments for intelligent agents is the _________

Machines that think, that learn and that create and called the effort _________

Universal algorithm for learning and acting in any environment, by Ray Solomonoff

Throughout the 60-year history of computer science, the emphasis has been on the _________ as the main subject of study.  But some recent work in AI suggests that for many problems, it makes more sense to worry about the _______ and be less picky about what algorithm to apply.

What can AI do today?

A Volkswagen Touareg outfitted with cameras, radar, and laser rangefinders to sense the environment and onboard software to command the steering, braking, and acceleration

NASA’s _________ program became the first on-board autonomous planning program to control the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft.

IBM’s _______ became the first computer program to defeat the world champion in a chess match when it bested Garry Kasparov by a score of 3.5 to 2.5 in an exhibition match.

U.S. forces deployed a ___________, to do automated logistics planning and scheduling for transportation.